LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Chap.._i.„i. Copyright No. 

Shelf...L Q._a. . 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



FRICTION, LUBRICATION 



LUBRICANTS IN HOROLOGY 



W. T.XEWIS, 

Hrest. Philadelphia Horological Society. 



ILLUSTRATED WITH HALF-TONES AND 
DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR. 



(o^l^^ ^ 



-^l 



CHICAGO : 

GEO. K. HAZLITT \- CO. 
1896. 






COFVRIGHTKD iSq6, 1?V W. T. LeWIS. 



Coi'VRiGHTKi) 1896, liv (iico. K. Hazlitt (S: Co. 






COiNTENTS. 

Page. 
InTRODI'CTION, - - - - - 7 

CHAPTER I. 

Lubricants in Horology — their Source and Methods of 
Refinement, ----- c) 

CHAPTER n. 
Elementary Physics Relating to Friction and Lubrication, 21 



CHAPTER HL 

Friction — its Nature and Theory, - - 29 

CHAPTER IV. 

Application of the Laws of Friction and Lubrication in 
Horology, - - . . . 43 

CHAPTER V. 

The Properties and Relative Values of Luliricants in 
Horology, - - - - - 61 



INTRODUCTION. 

Many books have been written on the various escape- 
ments, describing their action, construction and proportion, 
and the law^s governing the same ; learned writers have con- 
tributed much valuable information on adjusting ; excellent 
attachments for the various lathes have been invented ; and 
factories have expended fortunes to produce machinery of 
wonderful construction to finish all the parts of a watch in 
the most approved manner ; but all this scientific research, 
all this painstaking effort, all this care and labor, are ren- 
dered abortive by the maker or repairer of a time piece if 
he does not thoroughly understand and apply the physical 
laws which govern the science of lubrication. 

Many a watch, or chronometer, most excellent in all other 
respects, has come to an untimely end by an almost criminal 
neglect on the part of its maker to provide against wear in its 
various parts by such construction as would retain the oil at 
the places needed. 

How often the repairer — clean he his work as well as he 

may — replace he the broken or worn part to put the time 

piece in as good condition as new — finds that its rate changes, 

that is looses time before long, and, at the end of one year 

7 



8 INTRODUCTION. 

is badly out of repair, solely the result of lack of knowl- 
edge, or negligence, in properly lubricating, or on account of 
an oil having been used which was not suitable. 

The object of this paper is to present in concise form the 
best of that which is furnished by the literature of the pro- 
fession, together with that which has been written on fric- 
tion and lubrication in general (so far as it may be applica- 
ble), by those not connected with this particular vocation ; as 
well as the result of the practical experience of the manufac- 
turers of time pieces in this country most of whom have 
furnished much useful data in answer to queries on the 
subject. The manufacturers of oils have also assisted by 
contributing valuable information. 

The result of the author's experience, observation and 
experiments will also be incorporated ; and he will be grate- 
ful to any who may read this work, who will call attention, 
through the trade papers, to any errors of omission or com- 
mission that they may find therein. 



CHAPTER I. 

LUBRICANTS IN HOROLOGY THEIR SOURCE AND METHOD 

OF REFINEMENT. 

1. As but little is to be found on the subject in the 
literature accessible to most of the craft, a few remarks con- 
cerning the source and general methods of refining the oils 
used in horology will, no doubt, be of interest. 

A mechanic who would work intelligently should possess 
a thorough knowledge of the materials constantly used, and 
oil is used on every horological mechanism. In order that 
this paper may be of maxirhum benefit and interest, the 
author has spared no pains in procuring useful data. 

2. Porpoise Jaw Oil and Black Fish Melon Oil 

(64) have become widely known and justly celebrated in all 
parts of the world, as they were found to be better adapted 
for the purpose of lubricating fine and delicate machinery 
than any substance freviotisly used. 

3 . Blackfish- Melon Oil* " derives its name from the 
mass taken from the top of the head of the animal reaching 
from the spout hole to the end of the nose, and from the 
top of the head down to the upper jaw, from which it is 
extracted. When taken off in one piece this mass repre- 
sents a half watermelon, weighing about twenty-five pounds 
ordinarily. When the knife is put into the center of this 

*Brannt. Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils. 
9 



lO FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

melon the oil runs out more freely than the water does from 
a very nice watermelon. Porpoise jaw oil and blackfish 
melon oil are worth from $5 to $15 per gallon, accord- 
ing to supply. They are not only used in horology, but by 
manufacturers of fine firearms, philosophical apparatus, and 
in government lighthouses for the clocks of revolving lights." 

4. The Blubber, or fat, taken from the jaw of the por- 
poise or the head of the blackfish was formerly rendered in 
iron pots over a fire, but the modern method of extracting 
the oil by steam is said to be much superior. The oil is 
washed with water by thorough agitation, after which it is 
allowed to stand for several days, when it is drawn off and 
the last traces of water removed by distillation. The oil is 
then subjected to a very cold temperature and pressed 
through flannel cloths, by which process the "oleine" is 
separated from the "stearine," the resulting oil being more or 
less limpid as the former or latter constituent predominates. 

5. John Wing, of New Bedford, Mass., son-in-law 
of, and successor to, the late Ezra Kelley, states in answer 
to inquiries, that their supply of oil comes from the por- 
poise and blackfish taken during the summer months on the 
coast of Africa, above the equator ; and that they find that 
this oil contains less glutinous matter than that obtained in 
and about the St, Lawrence river, which fact he attributes to 
the difference in the food of the fish, which in turn affects 
the oil. 

6. D. C. Stull, of Provincetown, Mass., in answer to 
inquiries on the subject, has kindly furnished the following 
information and series of views : 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 



" The supply of porpoise-jaw oil and blackfish-melon oil 
comes mostly from Massachusetts Bay, the trap and gill net 
fishermen bringing them into Provincetown, sometimes 




Porpoise from a bishcrmaii. 



alive, as shown at Fig. i. The capture of fifteen hundred 
blackfish. Fig. 3, by the people of Provincetown, Truro 
and Wellsfleet, was one of the most exciting scenes in the 
annals of coast fishery. The fish were attracted to these 
shores by the large quantity of squid and herring, on which 
they feed. It is estimated that the catch was worth $25,000, 



12 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

some of the fish weighing two tons each. The relative 
size of a blackfish and a man is shown at Fig. 3. Seafaring 
men and whaling captains who catch the porpoise at sea, 
extract the oil from the head and jaw only, and bring it to 
the factories to be manufactured. 

" Fig. 4 is a good view of a modern factory. The fat is 
cut from the head and jaw, (Fig. 5,) washed in fresh water 
and put into covered tin cans, then into iron retorts, (Fig. 6.) 
These retorts are then closed, screwed up tightly, and live 
steam turned on from the boiler. The fat is cooked by 
steam for five hours, with ten pounds pressure, at 230° F. 
By this means the crude oil is extracted from the fat." 

7. Sperm Oil is the best known of all the lubricants 
and is, for general purposes, one of the most excellent. 

The large cavity in the head of the sperm whale con- 
tains oil and solid fat, from which the former is separated, 
without heating, by pressure and crystalization. As it is not 
at present used to any great extent in horology, a more 
lengthy description of the method of refining will be 
omitted. (65.) 

8. Bone Oil is made from the fat obtained by boiling 
the bones of animals. The finest quality is obtained from the 
leg bones of recently killed, healthy, young cattle, and the 
best method of treatment is given as follows* : 

" Fill a bottle one third full of the oil to be purified. Then 
pour clarified benzine in small portions upon the oil, close 
the bottle and shake until the benzine has disappeared. By 
again adding benzine and shaking, a complete solution of the 
fat is finally effected. That this has actually taken place is 

♦Brannt. Animal and V'egetable Fats and Oils. 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 1 3 

recognized by the contents of the bottle not separating after 
long standing. The bottle is then exposed to a low tem- 
perature for several hours, a solid fat deposits on the bottom, 
and the lower the temperature the greater is the deposit. 
Alongside the bottle containing the oil, place another bottle 
with a funnel, the lower end of which is closed by a cotton 
stopper ; after thoroughly shaking the bottle with oil, pour 
the contents into the funnel; the fluid portion runs into the 
bottle, while the solid portion is retained in the funnel by the 
cotton stopper. The clear solution of bone oil in benzine 
collected in the bottle is then brought into a small retort 
which is connected with a thoroughly cooled receiver. 
Place the retort in a tin vessel filled with water and apply 
heat. The benzine readily distills off, leaving the purified 
bone oil in the retort." (66.) 

9. Neat'S-fOOt Oil is largely used in the arts, being 
one of the best of lubricants. The best oil, viz. : that used 
for clocks etc., is extracted by placing the thoroughly cleaned 
feet of cattle in a covered vessel near the fire or in the 
sun. The oil thus obtained is clarified by standing before 
liottling. (67.) 

It was the practice of many olden time watchmakers to 
allow a large bottle of neat's-foot oil to stand in a position 
exposed to the direct rays of the sun in summer and to the 
extreme cold of the winter. Then after two or three years, 
on a very cold winter day, to poor off such oil as still 
remained fluid which was preserved for use. 

10. Olive Oil has been used as a lubricant since the 
early days of horology, the older writers giving many 
methods of treating: it. It is obtained from the fruit of the 



14 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

Olea Enropea^ one of the jasmines, which grows through- 
out Southern Europe and Northern Africa and other tropical 
countries. 

For the preparation of the finest oils, known as " Virgin 
oil," only the pulp of olives picked by hand is used. The 




Fig. 2.— A $25,000 Catch oj Blackfish. 

pulp is packed in strong linen and the oil is expressed by 
twisting the linen together. The pulp sometimes contains 
as high as 70 per cent of oil. 

Its last traces of adhering acid are removed by rigorous 
and repeated shaking with one hundreth part of their weight 
of caustic soda lye. After the mixture has stood for several 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 



15 



days a large quantity of water is added and the oil floating 
on the top is poured off. 

Though the oil is now free from acid, it still contains 
coloring matter and other substances which would prove 
injurious. It is then mixed with very strong alcohol, ten 
parts of the former to two of the latter, and thoroughly 
mixed by shaking. The bottle containing the mixture is 




Fig. 3.— Relative Size of a Blackfish and Man. 



then placed in the sun and the mixture shaken several times 
a day. In the course of two or three weeks the oil will 
have become white as water, when it is withdrawn from the 
alcohol, on the surface of which it floats. The purified oil 
is placed in small bottles, tightly corked, and kept in a dark, 
cool place. (68.) 

11. Mineral Oils have of late years taken immense 
strides in the popular and merited estimation of consumers, 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 1 7 

for general lubricating purposes. Their application in 
horology will be discussed in another part of this volume. 
They are obtained from the residuum of petroleum distilla- 
tion, and vary so greatly in their properties that many of 
them are not applicable to delicate mechanism ; but as the 
lighter varieties seem to fulfill all the necessary conditions, 
the writer will here consider their source and method of 
treatment. 

12. Petroleums are obtained from many different 
localities, being fluid, bituminous oils, all having the same 
general characteristics and origin. They are all hydrocar- 
bons, and contain little or no oxygen. As their origin is 
thoroughly discussed in many works on that subject, and 
as there is such a diversity of opinion regarding it, the 
reader is referred to such works.* 

13. Paraflftne, both liquid and solid, is obtained by the 
distillaton of crude petroleum by means of superheated 
steam. When the heavier hydrocarbons begin to come 
over the receiver is changed and the butyraceous distillate 
is filtered through a long column of well dried animal char- 
coal. The first portion of the percolate is colorless or 
nearly so. 

The distillate is made water white by some refiners by an 
acid treatment, followed by a water-and-alkali washing. On 
exposing this mass to a low temperature it becomes thick, 
somewhat like "cosmoline" but white. (59.) It is then 
shoveled into cotton bags of very strong material and sub- 

*Crew; Practical Treatise on Petroleum. Lesquereaux; Transactions Ameri- 
can Philosophical Society. Winchell; Sketches of Creation. Henry; Early and 
Later History of Petroleum. 



FRICTION, LUBRICATION 



jected to powerful pressure by means of a hydraulic press. 
This operation divides the paraffine into two parts : the solid 
paraffine wax from which candles, etc., are made remaining 





1 


y 


E4^^^B 




^^^'^'/i I 




m 


^M 


MUlK---' 




^^^^^ 


■ 


1 







^'S- 5-— Extracting Oil from the Head of a Forpoise. 

in the bags, while that which is expressed is paraffine oil. 
If the operation is carefully performed the oil will be free 
from crystaline paraffine at a very low temperature. 

14. Neutral Oils* "are refined paraffine oils varying 
in specific gravity from 0.864 ^ to 0.8333. ^or the purpose 

*Crew. Practical Treatise on Petroleum. 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 



19 



for which these oils are employed it is especially necessary 
that they be thoroughly deodorized. They are largely used 
for the purpose of mixing with animal and vegeable oils. 
It is said that a mixture of 95 per cent of a good neutral oil 
of the right gravity, and 5 per cent of sperm oil, has been 
sold for pure sperm. Ordinary inspection as to the odor 




Fig. 6. — Kendcring Room in D. C. Siull's Factory. 

^nd general appearance would fail to detect the adulteration. 
Having been subjected to the usual process for the extrac- 
ion of crystaline paraffine, they will stand a very low cold 
test, and having been passed through bone black cylinders, 
they are free from odor and have but little color. They 
are usually exposed for a few days in open shallow tanks 
for the purpose of removing the flurescence of petroleum 
oils. Unmixed with heavier oils they are too light in body 



20 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

(especially the lighter varieties) to be employed as spindle 
or machinery oils, but when mixed with such oils in the 
proper proportions they form admirable lubricating com- 
pounds for general lubricating purposes when very high 
speed is not required." (70-71.) 



CHAPTER II. 

ELEMENTARY PHYSICS RELATING TO FRICTION AND 
LUBRICATION. 

15. Most of those who may read this work, are no doubt 
familiar with the laws of elementary physics; but as rt'//may 
not be, for a better understanding of that which follows, it 
may be well to treat briefly of some of the physical laws 
bearing on the subject. 

16. The Molecule.* Evo-y visible body of matter 
is composed of exceedingly small particles called molecules. 
This is the basis of the theory of the constitution of matter 
which physicists have usually adopted. It is estimated that 
if we should attempt to count the number of molecules in a 
pin's head, counting at the rate of 10,000,000 per second, we 
should require 250,000 years. 

17. Porsity. The term pore in physics is restricted 
to the invisible space that separates molecules. All matter 
is porous; thus dense gold will absorb (34) liquid mercury, 
much as chalk will water; but' the cavities to be seen in 
a sponge are not pores. 

18. G;ravitation. That attraction xvhich is exerted 
on all matter, at all distances, is called gravitation. Gravi- 
tation is universal, that is, every molecule of matter attracts 

*This and some of the definitions that follow are adapted from " Elements of 
Physics by A. P. Gage." 



22 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

every other molecule of matter in the universe. The whole 
force with which two bodies attract one another is the sum 
of the attraction of their molecules, and depends upon 
the number of molecules the two bodies collectively con- 
tain, and the mass of each molecule. Hence, all bodies 
attract, and are attracted by, all other bodies. 

In a ball suspended from the ceiling by a thread an attrac- 
tion exists between the ball and the ceiling, but on account 
of a greater attraction existing between the liall and the 
earth, if we cut the thread the ball will move toward the 
earth, or in the direction of the greater attraction. 

19. The Effect of Distance. Gravitation varies 
inversely xvith the distance by ivhich txvo bodies are separated. 

As the sun is many times greater than the earth, the attrac- 
tion between the ball (i8) and the sun would cause the ball 
to leave the earth and move toward the sun were it not for the 
fact that the ball is so much nearer to the earth than to the 
sun. 

20. Cohesion. The attraction ivhich holds the mole- 
cules of tJic same substance together so as to form larger 
bodies is called cohesion. 

It acts only at insensible distances and is strictly a mole- 
cular force. It is that force which prevents solid bodies 
from falling apart. Liquids like molasses and honey pos- 
possess more cohesive force among the molecules of which 
they are composed than limpid liquids like water and alcohol. 
The former are said to be viscous, or to possess "viscosity. 

21. Adhesion. That force xv hie h causes unlike S7ib- 
stances to clini'- tooether is called adhesion. If is that force 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 



23 



which keeps nails, driven into wood, in their places. You 
can climb a pole because of the adhesion between your hands 
and the pole. We could not pick anything up if it were not 
for adhesion. Glue, when dry, possesses both cohesion and 
adhesion to a great degree. 

22. Capillarity. Examine the surface of water in a 
vessel. You find the surface level, except around the edge 
next the glass, as at A (Fig. 7.) 



I. Thrust vertically into water three glass tubes. A, B 
and C (Fig. 8), open at both ends. You notice the water 




WMW/M//' 
o 

ascends in each to a different height, and that the ascettsioti 
varies inversely as the diameter of the bore; i. e., the smaller 
the bore, the higher the water ascends. 



24 



FRICTION, LUBRICATION 



2. Seal one of the tubes at its upper end. The water 
enters but little, as shown at D (Fig. 8), on account of the 
resistance of the air pressure within the tube. 

3. Thrust vertically two plates of glass into water, 
and gradually bring the surfaces near to each other. Soon 
the water rises between the plates, and rises higher as the 




^£^_'^'3 



plates are brought nearer. If their surfaces be mutually 
parallel and vertical, the water rises to the same height at all 
points between the plates, as shown at A (Fig 9.) 

4. If the plates be united by a hinge, and form an angle, 
the height to which the water ascends increases as the dis- 
tance between the plates decreases up to their line of junction, 
where it attains a maximum, as shown at B (Fig. 9.) 

5. Decrease the angle between the plates, and the water 
ascends higher, as shown at C (Fig. 9.) Thus it is seen 
that the ascension varies inversely with the angle between the 
plates ; i. e., the smaller the angle, the higher the water 
ascends. 

6. When a drop of oil is placed between two glass plates 
arranged as shown at A (Fig. 10), if the surfaces are not 
too far distant, and if the oil touches both surfaces, it will be 
seen to work its way to the junction of the plates ; showing 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 



25 



that oil between surfaces has a tendency to Jiozv towards the 
apex of the angle. 



^2^^ ZLQ. 

7. Place a drop of oil on a taper piece of metal, as shown 
at B (Fig. 10). The oil will gradually recede from the 
point to a place where there is more metal, showing that 
oil 071 surfaces has a tendency to Jloxv towards the largest 
part. 

8. When a drop of oil is placed between two watch 
glasses arranged with flat and convex sides adjacent, as at A 
(Fig. 1 1 ), or with convex sides adjacent, as at B (Fig. 11), if 




the glasses are rigidly fixed in their relative positions the 
drop of oil can be shaken from its location only with great 
difficulty ; the oil at C holding its place with greater tenacity 
than the oil at D. 



26 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

The foregoing phenomena are called capillary action^ oi 
capillarity. Capillary action is due to the forces of cohesion 
(20), and to the forces of adhesion (21.) 

23. Centrifugal Force. — The tendency of a body 
rotatitig ro7ind a point to escape fro?n that point is called 
centrifugal force. 

Place a small quantity of oil on the arm of a balance, 
near the arbor. Rotate the wheel rapidly. The oil is seen 
to flow towards the rim of the wheel. 

24. Absorption of Gases by Liquids depends on 

molecular attraction and motion. Water at a temperature of 
0° cen. (32° f.), is capable of condensing in its pores (17) six 
hundred times its own bulk of ammonia gas. The absorp- 
tion of oxygen from the air causes some oils to become more 
viscous, to eventually become solid, without losing in weight, 
in fact sometimes gaining. Other oils dry up, or evaporate^ 
leaving little or no residue. 

25. Force. — Force is that zvhich can prodtice^ change 
or destroy motion. 

We see a body move ; we know there must be a cause ; 
that cause we call force. We see a body in motion come to 
rest ; this effect must have had a cause ; that cause we 
attribute to force. The forces acting in machines are dis- 
tinguished into driving and resisting forces. That compo- 
nent of the force which does the work is called the '•'•effort.'''' 

26. Friction is usually a resisting (29) force, tending 
to destroy motion ; but it is sometimes the means of the 
transmission of motion. 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 2"] 

27. Work is the result of force acting through space. 
When force prockices motion, the result is work. Work is 
measured by the product of the resistance into the space 
through tvhich it is overcome. 

28. Energy, which is defined* as the capacity for 
doing work, is either actual or potential. Actual or kinetic 
energy is the energy of an actually moving body, and is 
measured by the work which it is capable of performing 
while being brought to rest under the action of a retarding 
force. 

Potential Energy is the capacity for doing work pos- 
sessed by a body in virtue of its position, of its condition, or 
of its intrinsic properties. A bent bow or a coiled spring 
has potential energy, which becomes actual in the impulsion 
of the arrow or is expended in the work of the mechanism 
driven by the machine. A clock weight, condensed air and 
gunpowder are examples. 

This form of energy appears in every moving part of 
every machine and its variations often seriously affect the 
working of machinery. (84.) 

*Thurston. " Friction and Lost Work in Machinery." from which excellent 
work much of the next chapter is adapted. 



CHAPTER III. 

FRICTION ITS NATURE AND THEORY. 

29. Friction. The relative motion of one particle or 
body in forced contact with another is always retarded, or 
prevented, by a resisting force called friction. 

Friction manifests itself in three ways : Between solids 
it is called sliding and rolling friction ; between the par- 
ticles of liquids, or of gasses, when they move in contact 
with each other, or with other bodies, it is caWeA Jluid fric- 
tion. Quite different laws govern these three kinds of fric- 
tion, as they are quite different in character. 

Friction can never of itself produce or accelerate motion, 
being always a resisting force, acting at the surfaces of con- 
tact of the two particles, or masses, between which it occurs, 
and in the direction of their common tangent, resisting rela- 
tive motion in whichever direction it may be attempted to 
produce it. The greatest loss of energy in a timepiece in 
which all the parts are rigid enough to prevent permanent 
distortion, is that occurring through friction. Another 
source of loss of energy is the reduction in elasticity of 
springs caused by a rise of temperature. 

30. The Cause of Sliding Friction is the inter- 
locking of the asperities of one surface with those of another ; 
and only by the riding of one set over the other, or by a 
rubbing down or tearing off of projecting parts, can motion 
take place. It follows, then, that roughness is conducive to 

29 



30 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

friction ; and that the smoother the surface the less the fric- 
tion will be. 

31. The Cause of Rolling Friction is the irregu- 
larity and lack of symmetry of the surfaces between which 
it occurs. It acts as a resisting, or retarding, force when a 
smoothly curved surface rolls upon another surface, plane or 
curved. 

Motion is prevented, or retarded, by the irregular varia- 
tion of the distance between the center of gravity and the 
line of motion in the common tangent of the two bodies at 
the point of contact, caused by the irregularity of form, or 
of surface, in the one or the other body. Rolling friction is 
small where hard, smooth, symmetrical surfaces are in con- 
tact, and increases as the surfaces are soft, rough or 
irregular. 

In a knife edge support, seen in some forms of pendu- 
lums, is exhibited a form of rolling friction. 

32. Solid Friction, either sliding or rolling, could be 
overcome if it were possible to produce absolutely smooth 
surfaces. It is evident, then, that the character of the mate- 
rial, as well as the form of their surfaces, determines the 
amount of friction. 

In all time-keeping mechanism both sliding and rolling 
friction manifest themselves ; the former principally between 
the surfaces of pivots and bearings and in the escapements, 
the latter mainly between the surfaces of the teeth of 
wheels, and to some extent in some of the pivots, and some- 
times in parts of escapements. It is not the intention of the 
author to treat of the proper shape of the teeth of wheels, 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 3 1 

leaves of pinions, or the proportions of the escapements, the 
nature and scope of this work not permitting of it ; but he 
will confine his remarks principally to the parts that involve 
lubrication, 

33. The Laws of Sliding Friction, as given by 

Thurston,* with solid, unlubricated surfaces, are, up to the 
point of abrasion, as follows : 

1. The direction of frictional resisting forces is in the 
common tangent plane of the two surfaces, and directly 
opposed to their relative motion. 

2. The point, or surface, of application of this resistance 
is the point, or the surface, on which contact occurs. 

3. The greatest magnitude of this resisting force is 
dependent on the character of the surfaces, and is directly 
proportional to the force with which two surfaces are pressed 
together. 

z|. The maximum frictional resistance is independent of 
the area of contact, the velocity of rubbing, or any other 
conditions than intensity of pressure and condition of sur- 
faces. 

5. The friction of rest or quiescence, "statical friction," is 
greater than that of motion, or "kinetic friction." 

He further states that these "laws" are not absolutely 
exact, as here stated, so far as they affect the magnitude of 
frictional resistance. It is found that some evidence exists 
indicating the continuous nature of the friction of rest and of 
motion. 

When the pressure exceeds a certain amount, fixed for 
each pair of surfaces, abrasion of the softer surface or other 

♦Thurston. Friction and Lost Work in Machinery. 



32 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

change of form takes place, the resistance becomes greater 
and is no longer wholly frictional. 

When the pressure falls below a certain other and lower 
limit the resistance may be principally due to adhesion, an 
entirely different force, which may enter into the total resist- 
ance at all pressures, but which does not always appreciably 
modify the law at high pressures. 

This limitation is seldom observable with solid, unlubri- 
cated surfaces, but may often be observed with lubricated 
surfaces, the friction of which, as will presently be seen 
(41), follows different laws. The upper limit should never 
be approached in machinery. 

The coefficient of friction is that quantity which, being 
multiplied by the total pressure acting normally to the sur- 
faces in contact, will give the measure of the maximum 
frictional resistance to motion. 

34. Sliding Friction is Proportional to Press- 
ure according to the third law quoted above. This is easily 
demonstrated by ascertaining what force is necessary to pro- 
duce, or continue, motion in a body lying on a plane surface ; 
double the weight of the body and the force required to 
produce, or continue, motion, will have to be doubled. The 
converse is also true (36). 

35. Sliding Friction is Independent of the 

Area of Contact, the pressure remaining the same (law 

4>33)- 

This is accounted for by the fact that if, for example, the 
area of contact be doubled, though twice the number of 
asperities will present themselves, each individual retarding 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 33 

force is only half of what it was previously, and the general 
effect is the same (36). 

36. The Intensity of Sliding Friction is Inde- 
pendent of Velocity. (Law 4, 33.) This is explained 
by the fact that the interlocking of the asperities on each 
surface has a shorter time to take place in increased speed, 
and consequently cannot be so effective as with slow speed. 
But with high speed more asperities are presented than in 
low speed, so the effect is the same in both cases. 

The above {jj-jd) are not exact^ being the statement of 
experimental laws, and admit of considerable modification 
when applied in horological science, as will be shoivn 
{41-42-) 

37. The Effect of a Loose Bearing is an increase 

of friction, and consequently a loss of energy, resulting in 
the wear of one or both surfaces in contact, according to con- 




ditions. In Fig. 1 3, A is a loose bearing, B a journal at rest 
and C the point of contact. If the journal be now turned in 
the direction of the arrow by the motive force, it will have a 
tendency to roll over a short arc of the bearing to a new 



34 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

point of contact, as at D, when it begins to slide ; so long as 
the coefficient of friction is unchanged it retains this posi- 
tion ; but approaches or retreats from the point C, as the 
coefficient of friction diminishes or increases, continually 
finding new conditions of equilibrium. The arc of contact 
is thus too small to withstand the pressure without abrasion 
of one or both surfaces. 

It will thus be seen that the journal, or pivot, should fit its 
bearing closely ; but it should be borne in mind that no 
tendency to "bind" should be produced, the fitting being 
such that the wheel will turn readily with a minimum 
pressure. 

The film of oil which must be interposed between the 
bearing surfaces of the journal, or pivot, and its bearing, will 
also occupy some space ; and this must be remembered, par- 
ticularly in the case of pivots in the escapement. 

38. The Laws of Rolling Friction are not as yet 

definitely established, because of the uncertainty of the 
results of experiments, as to the amount of friction due to 
(i) roughness of surface, (2) irregularity of form, (3) dis- 
tortion under pressure. 

The first and second of these quantities vary inversely as 
the radius ; and the third depends upon the character of the 
material composing the two surfaces in contact. 

It follows, then, that in such minute mechanical con- 
trivances as are used in horology, as the motive force is in 
some cases very light, the horologist should endeavor to 
produce, where rolling friction takes place, the maximum 
— smoothness of surface — regularity of form — adaptation of 
surfaces (31.) 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 35 

There are many other points on which the writer would 
like to dwell, as engaging and disengaging friction, internal 
friction, etc., etc., but the scope of this paper will not permit. 

39. The Friction of Fluids in horology is of grave 
importance. It is subject to quite different laws from those 
met with in the motion of solids in contact. When a fluid 
moves in contact with a solid the resistance to motion expe- 
rienced is due to relative motion of layers of fluid moving 
in contact with each other. At surfaces of contact with a 
solid the fluid lies against the solid without appreciable rela- 
tive motion ; as the distance from the surface is increased by 
layer upon layer of the fluid, the relative velocity of the 
solid and the fluid becomes greater. Fluid friction is^ 
therefore^ the friction of adjacent bodies of fluid in relative 
motion. 

While fluid friction acts as a retarding force in mechanism 
it converts the mechanical energy required to produce it into 
its heat equivalent, thus raising the temperature of the mass 
in a greater or lesser degree. 

The resisting property which thus effects this conversion, 
and which is the cause of fluid friction, is called viceosity. 

It is thus apparent that a variation of the viceosity of the 
oil used on a watch would cause a variation of fluid friction 
and consequently a variation of the effort (ii), and would 
seriously interfere zuith the rate of the watch. This will 
be discussed (84) more thoroughly in another paragraph. 

40. The Laws of Fluid Friction are : 

I. Fluid friction is independent of the pressure between 
the masses in contact. 



36 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

2. Fluid friction is directly proportional to the surfaces 
between which it occurs. 

3. This resistance is proportional to the square of the 
relative velocity at moderate and high speeds, and to the 
velocity nearly at very low speeds. 

4. It is independent of the nature of the surfaces of the 
solid against which the stream may flow, but it is dependent 
to some extent upon the degree of roughness of those sur- 
faces. 

5. It is proportional to the density of the fluid and is 
related in some way to its viscosity. 

41. The Compound Friction of Lubricated Sur- 
faces, as Thurston terms it, or friction due to the action of 
surfaces of solids partly separated by a fluid, is observed in 
all cases in which the rubbing surfaces are lubricated. The 
solids, in such instances, though partly supported by the 
layer of lubricant which is retained in place by adhesion 
(21) and cohesion (20), usually rub on each other more or 
less, as they are usually not completely separated by the 
liquid film interposed between them. 

Wear is produced by the rubbing together of the two solids ; 
and the rate at which the lubricant becomes discolored and 
charged with abraded metal indicates the amount of wear. 

The journal and bearing are forced into close contact in 
the case of heavy pressures and slow speeds, as is shown by 
their worn condition ; while the journal floats on the film of 
fluid which is continually interposed between it and the bear- 
ing, in the case of very light pressures, and high velocities ; 
in the latter instance the friction occurs between two Jluid 
layers^ one moving with each surface. 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 37 

With heavy machinery, as the hardness and degree of 
polish of the surfaces cannot be increased in proportion to 
their weight, the solid friction is so great that while the 
interposition of a lubricant between the surfaces adds fluid 
friction, it also reduces the solid friction; and as the fluid 
friction is so insignificant as compared to the solid friction, 
the former is almost completely masked by the latter. In 
this case the laws of solid friction are more nearly applicable. 

But in a delicate machine like a watch, especially in the 
escapement, where the power is so light, and where the rub- 
bing surfaces are so hard, smooth and regular, the solid 
friction is so minute as compared to the fluid friction, that 
the former is relatively very slight, as compared with the 
latter. The laws of fluid friction are more nearly applicable 
in this instance. 

There are thus, evidently, two limiting cases between which 
all examples of satisfactorily lubricated surfaces fall ; the one 
limit is that of purely solid friction, which limit being passed, 
and sometimes before, abrasion ensues ; the other limit is that 
at which the resistance is entirely due to the friction of the 
film of fluid which separates the surfaces of the solids 
completely. 

42. The Laws of Friction of Lubricated Sur- 
faces are evidently neither those of solid friction nor those 
of fluid friction, but will resemble more nearly the one or 
the other, as the limits described in the previous paragraph 
are approached. The value of the coeflicient of friction 
varies with every change of velocity, of pressure, and of 
temperature, as well ps with the change of character of the 
surfaces in contact. 



38 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

For perfectly lubricated surfaces, were such attainable, 
assuming it practicable with complete separation of the sur- 
faces, the laws of friction, according to Thurston, would 
become : 

1. The coefficient is inversely as the intensity of the 
pressure, and the resistance is independent of the pressure. 

2. The friction coefficient varies as the square of the 
speed. 

3. The friction varies directly as the area of the journal 
bearing. 

4. The friction varies as the temperature rises, and as the 
viscosity of the lubricant is thus decreased (80). 

43. The Methods of Reducing Waste of Energy- 
Caused by Friction in time keeping mechanisms are 
based upon a few simple principles. It is evident that to 
make the work and power so lost a minimum, it is necessary 
to adopt the following precautions : 

1. Proper choice of materials for rubbing surfaces (29- 

32). 

2. Smooth finish and symmetrical shape of surfaces in 
contact (29-32 and 38). 

3. The use of a lubricant the viscosity of which is adapted 
to the pressure between the bearing surfaces (80). 

4. The best methods for retaining the lubricant at the 
places required, and for providing for a continual supply of 
the lubricant. 

5. The Vjearing surfaces of such proportions that the 
lubricant will not be expelled at normal pressure. 

6. The reducing of the diameters of all journals, shoulders 
and pivots, to the smallest size compatible with the foregoing 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 39 

conditions, and with the stresses they are expected to sus- 
tain, thus reducing the space, through which the fluid fric- 
tion acts, to a minimum (40) ; as well as reducing the dis- 
tance from the axis of the arbor or pinion at which the friction, 
both solid and fluid, acts. The work done is independent of 
the length of the journal ; except as it may modify pressure, 
and thus the coefficient of friction. 

7. Proper fitting of bearing surfaces (37). 

8. The reducing of the rubbing surfaces in escapements 
as much as the nature of the materials will allow without 
abrasion in the course of time (55). 

44. Friction Between Surfaces Moving at Very- 
Slow Speed, has been investigated by Fleming Jenkin 
and J. A, Ewing. A contrivance, which would be very 
excellent with some improvement, for the determination of 
the amount of friction under such conditions, is given in a 
paper* read before the Royal Society of London. 

The arrangement employed by them was composed of a 
cast iron disk two feet in diameter and weighing 86 pounds. 
This disk, being turned true on its circumference, was sup- 
ported by a spindle terminating in pivots 0.25 C. M. in 
diameter, the pivots resting in small rectangular bearings 
composed of the material the friction of which vC^ith steel is 
to be determined. 

A tracing of ink was produced on a strip of paper which 
surrounded the disk, the ink being supplied by a pen actu- 
ated electrically by a pendulum, as in the syphon recorder. 

As the traces thus left on the paper were produced with- 
out in any way interfering with the freedom of motion of 

♦Philosophical Transactions, 1877, Vol. CLXVII., p. 502. 



40 



FRICTION, LUBRICATION 



the disk, they afforded a means of determining the velocity 
of rotation. 

The relative velocities of the pivot to the bearing surfaces 
varied from .006 C. M. to 0.3 C. M. per second, being the 
velocities met with in the various parts of time keeping 
devices. 

Experiments were made with the bearing surfaces suc- 
cessively in three different conditions: viz. i,dry; 2, wet 
with water ; and 3, wet with oil ; and gave the following 
results : 

TABLE I. 



SURFACES. 


COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION. 


JOURNAL. 


BEARING. 


DRY. 


WATER. 


OIL. 


Steel 


Steel 


0.351 

O.I 95 
0.200 


0.208 
105 
0.166 


O.llS 
0.146 


•• 


Polished Agate. . 


0.107 





►Several facts of great interest to the horologist are here 
shown. 

*Edward Rigg has this to say in regard to the apparatus 
ofjenkin and Ewing. "The friction, then, is true sliding 
friction without any rolling, and it will be evident that if the 
bearing were a circular hole just large enough to admit the 
pivot freely, the character of the friction would be in no way 
changed. In both a watch and clock the pivots are pressed 
against the sides of the pivot holes, either by the motive 
force or by gravity. There is no rolling round the pivot holes, 
so that the friction is all of the first kind. Jenkin's experi- 

*The Hoiological Journal, Apr., 18H1. Vol. XXIII., page q8. 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 4I 

ments are, then, strictly applicable to the case of pivots ^\ and 
they constitute, so far as I am aware, the first scientific 
determination of the friction that occurs in time-keepers, and 
even in these experiments, the pressure, due to the weight 
of 86 pounds, is evidently too great, and thus too little regard 
is paid to the influence of adhesion." 

E. Rigg further states that, reverting to the preceding 
table, we notice the following points of interest :- — 

1. "When the oil has dried up, the friction of a steel 
pivot in brass is actually less than in agate." 

2. A greater diminution of friction, by the application 
of oil, is effected when steel is used with steel, than where 
steel is used with brass or agate ; although the fluid friction 
is probably equal in the three cases, when oil is used. 

3. With a perfect, non-drying, non-oxidizing lubricant, 
steel bearings for pivots would be preferable to brass bear- 
ings. Hence, with anything short of an approximately per- 
fect oil, the brass is most serviceable. 

4. Brass pivot holes are much less affected by the drying 
of the oil than agate holes would be ; and, in the absence of 
experiment, we must assume that this would be the case 
with ruby or other jewels. 

5. When the oil is perfectly fresh, agate and steel have a 
very low coefficient of friction." 

How much these results would be altered by the use of a 
disk of such weight, and pivots of such proportionate size, 
as to meet the actual requirements in horology, remains to 
be ascertained. 

Certainly the experiments of Jenkin, are not applicable to 
the pivots of a watch, as stated by E. Rigg ; especially are 

tThe writer has italicised this phrase. 



42 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

they not applicable to the friction of pivots in the escape, 
ment, where the laws of fluid friction are more nearly applic- 
able ; and when it is remembered that the weight of the disk 
was 86 pounds, and the pivots .25 c. m. in diameter, (or 
about the size of pivot of a large barrel arbor,) it is evident 
that the solid friction produced was much in excess of that 
produced in even the heavy part of the train of a watch. 

Furthermore, even Jenkin and Ewing, in their paper, 
state " that, owing to the very great intensity of the pressure 
on the small bearing surfaces of the axle, the lubricants 
must have been to a great extent forced out." In a properly 
made watch, with a good lubricant, this does not occur. 

But there can be no doubt that if the apparatus above 
described were so constructed as to meet the actual condi- 
tions in time recording instruments, very valuable data could 
be thereby secured. This could be done by reducing the 
weight of the disk, so as to make the weight bear the proper 
relation to the size of the pivots. 



CHAPTER IV. 

APPLICATION OK TlIK LAW OF FRICTION AND LUBRICATION 
IN HOROLOGY. 

45. The scope of this work will not permit the discus- 
sion of the proper size, shape and construction of each and 
every part of all the various kinds of time-keeping mechan- 
isms which have been produced. However a number of 
representative cases of friction and lubrication will be con- 
sidered, and the laws applying to the same will be demon- 
strated. Practical methods of obtaining the best results 
will be shown and mistakes to be avoided will be pointed 
out. 

The knowledge of what we ought not to do is sometimes 
of vastly greater importance than it is usually considered 
to be. 

46. The Proportions of Pivots, Shoulders and 

Bearings, where the bearings are not capped -jewels, 
should be such that the coefficient (33) of the combined 
solid and fluid friction will be a minimum, and such that the 
lubricant will not be expelled at normal pressure, while the 
" fit" (37) must be good. 

I. The diatneters of all pivots should be of the smallest 
size compatible (43, 6) with the foregoing condition, and 
with the stresses which they are expected to sustain. 
43 



44 



FRICTION, LUBRICATION 



2. The length of bearing surfaces is regulated by the 
pressures which may occur (43) between them, and by the 
nature of the materials of which they may be composed. 

3. Given the diameter and the pressure, the length of the 
bearing surfaces can be so proportioned as to prevent 
abrasion and to present surfaces, between which the film of 
oil is interposed, of such magnitude that the lubricant will 
not be expelled at normal pressure. 




4. In Fig. 13 the length of bearing surface of the pivot 
is equal to its diameter, but the proportion must be varied 
according to conditions. 

5. The barrel arbor pivots are sometimes necessaril}' of 
large diameter, and the bearing surfaces can be made shorter 
in proportion, as the surfaces will then be great enough to 
give good results as well as to retain (4^^) the oil. 

6. In the center pinion (49) where the diameter of the 
the pivots is made small for reasons explained (43, 6), the 
length of the bearing surfaces must be such that abrasion 
will not occur, and that the oil will not be expelled. 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 45 

7. The rest of the train is subject to the same laws. The 
length of the bearing surfaces of the pivots remote from 
the motive force can be made shorter in proportion. 

8. The diameter of the shoulder S, Fig. 13, is reduced 
to as small a size as will properly sustain the " end thrust," 
thus reducing the friction, both solid and fluid, to a mini- 
mum, at the same time reducing the distance from the 
center of the arbor (43, 6) at which the friction acts. 

9. The above proportions vary with the nature of the 
material ; where jewels are employed a shorter bearing sur- 
face may be used, if it be desired to reduce friction, but the 
pressure on the oil is the same with jewel as with brass 
bearings, so that it must not be made so short that the oil 
will be expelled. 

47. The Shape of Pivots, Shoulders and Bear 

ingS, where the bearings are not capped jewels, should be 
such as to produce as little friction as possible. They should 
be hard, symmetrical, and smooth (30). 

The construction should be such that a considerable amount 
of oil may be applied xvithout having a te?tdency to spread. 

The advantages of the construction shown at Fig. 13 are: 

I, The oil sink O is deep and narrow, rather than wide 
and flat — thus causing the oil to be drawn towards the apex 
of the angle, i. e. towards the pivot, with greater force 
(32,5) than if the oil sink were wide and shallow, in which 
case the oil would have a tendency to spread, as too often 
occurs. 

3. The total length of the pivot is to the length of its 
bearing surface as 5 is to 3, thus further reducing the angle, 
which produces a greater tendency (22,5) in the oil to stay 
in the oil-sink. 



j[6 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

3. A circular groove G is cut around the oil sink, which 
produces a still greater tendency on the part of the oil to 
stay in the sink, by removing metal which would otherwise 
exert an attraction (19) on the oil. 

4. The beveled portion P is comparatively large — 
while the shoulder S is relatively small — thus forming 
the angle O' of about 20° with the flat surface of the 
bearing. This will cause the oil to have a tendency to 
flow towards the pivot, for the reason given in considering 
the oil-sink. 

5. The boss B is made to diminish the liability of the 
oil to spread, by a reduction ( 18 — 19) of the amount of metal 
which would otherwise cause it. 

6. The back taper T is made for the same reason. 
Some watchmakers (.'') seem to think this is added only 
for ornament, but it is a very important factor in producing 
longevity of the oil. 

7. The slight chamfer C, in the bearing, serves two pur- 
poses ; it becomes a reservoir for oil and removes any burr 
that might otherwise exist in a metal bearing, without in anv 
way altering its effectiveness. 

8. It will thus be seen that the oil reservoirs O, O' and 
C are made to contain, and retain, the maximum amount of 
oil, and the supply of the lubricant is thus increased to a 
maximum length of time. 

The application of these principles to each part to whicli 
they relate will be considered. 

48. The Barrel Arbor, with its bearing, should be so 
constructed that the oil will not spread to the contiguous 
parts. The oil sink, with circular groove cut around the 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 47 

outside (46-47), both in the barrel and its cover, should not 
be neglected. 

It is well to apply oil to the bottom and on the cover of 
the barrel, as well as on the coils of the spring ; and before 
putting on the cover, a small amount applied on the arbor 
nut at the shoulders will assist greatly in causing the oil to 
be at once drawn to its proper place. 

Care must he exercised while and after cleaning the 
mainspring, in order that it may come in contact with the 
fingers as little as possible, as the acids contained in per- 
spiration are liable to be transferred to the spring and so 
work serious injury by contaminating the oil. 

A part frequently neglected is the point of contact of the 
click spring with the click. If this part be not oiled rust is 
likely to form, and many instances have occurred where rust 
has found its way all through the movement from this cause. 
In fact, this may be said of the point of contact of all 
springs, with few exceptions, both in plain and complicated 
work. 

If the watch has a chain and fusee, these both should be 
looked after ; the former can be well oiled, and the surplus 
wiped off so as to leave a minute quantity in the interstices 
of the links ; while the latter should have oil on its clicks, as 
well as on the arbor where it passes through the wheel. If 
the ratchet of the maintaining power be of brass it should 
not be oiled ; while if it is of steel oil should be applied. Its 
click should have the pivots of its arbor oiled, while what 
was said of clicks in general will apply here. 

49. The Center Pinion Pivots, with their bearings, 

should be very carefully constructed, as this is the vulnerable 



48 • FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

point of most watches. With proper precautions (46 — 47) 
these parts can be made so as to wear as long as the rest of 
the watch. 

In a high-priced watch the bearings should be jewels; 
but in a cheap watch, where the price will not warrant cor- 
rect work and careful fitting, the bearings are preferably of 
brass or some other metal. 

Where the bearings of the center pinions are of brass or 
nickel, there is little difficulty experienced in making them 
perfectly "upright" — a condition necessary to produce a 
minimum amount of friction — while, if the bearings are 
jewels which are not upright, the friction, and consequent 
wear, will be increased. Properly jeweled bearings produce 
a maximum durability, as they cause the least friction ; 
while the coefficient of friction is subject to much less fluctua- 
tion on account of the harder, smoother surface of the jewel, 
(43^ 46, 47 and 61). 

Where there is a brass bearing for the lower pivot, in watches 
naving a solid center arbor on which the cannon pinion 
revolves in setting, the length of the bearing may be profit- 
ably increased by making a boss on the outer side of the 
lower plate, provision for which is then made in the cannon 
pinion by a suitable recess. In either case the laws previously 
given should be complied with. 

A source of mischief in many watches is the manner in 
which the minute wheel is made ; the construction being 
such that its teeth touch the plate so near the bearing of the 
center arbor that capillary attraction (19, 22) is produced, 
which causes all the oil to leave the lower bearing of the 
center arbor. This can be avoided by cutting off the lower 
parts of the teeth of the minute wheel ; or, by turning a 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 49 

groove in the plate which will be concentric with the minute 
wheel post, and which will pass under the teeth of the wheel, 
but not near enough to the bearing of the center arbor to 
injure the latter. 

The oil from the stem wind mechanism, also, sometimes 
flows under the minute wheel, and from there into the center 
arbor bearing ; and, when the oil is used up in the former 
place, it is drawn up again out of the latter place leaving it 
dry. A means of preventing this will be discussed (59) later. 

Another and very frequent cause of the lower center 
pivot cutting, particularly in new watches, is the neglect to 
remove the polishing material from the cannon pinion where 
the center arbor is solid. 

A small portion of oil should be applied to the bearings of 
the minute wheel, (where its pinion, or the pivot on which 
it revolves, is steel), hour wheel, and cannon pmion where 
the center arbor is solid, and to the set hands arbor where 
the center arbor is hollow. The safety pinion should always 
be oiled, as it may not otherwise be of much service. 

50. The Third Pinion Pivots are sometimes the 

source of mischief. When the center wheel is placed above 
or below the barrel, the upper or lower pivot of the third 
pinion receives such great stress that the oil is forced out in 
many cases. By increasing the length of the pivot this 
could be obviated. The minute wheel is sometimes so close 
to the lower bearing of this pinion as to absorb the oil. This 
can be remedied by cutting a recess in the lower side of the 
minute wheel. Where it is possible to do so the wheels 
should be so placed on their pinions and arbors, and at such 
a distance from the bearing: surfaces of the latter, that the 



50 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

stress on each pivot — the combined resuh of the weight of 
the wheel and the forces acting- on it — will be equal. 

51. The Fourth Pinion Pivots should follow the 

same general laws as that given for the rest of the train ; 
but it should be borne in mind that fluid friction acts as a 
retarding force much more perceptibly in the lighter parts 
of the train ; consequently if no second-hand is to be carried, 
very small bearing surfaces should be the rule in this case. 

52. The 'Scape Pinion Pivots as well as the 

shoulders should not be too large, while there should l)e suf- 
ficent back taper to insure the oil remaining at the pivots. 
A very small quantity of oil should be applied, as, when too 
much is used, it is liable to work up into the pinion where 
the latter is short, as in very thin watches, thus producing, 
when very fine dust is added, a mixture that acts much like oil 
stone power and oil, which cuts away the leaves of the pinion. 

53. The Lever Arbor Pivots should also be small, 

with small shoulders so as to reduce fluid friction to a 
minimum. 

It may be well to add that in all uncapped bearings of pivots 
in the train, whether they be of jewels or of brass, a slight 
convex shape can profitabl}' be given to the surface where 
the shoulder of the arbor, or pinion, touches the bearing, 
thereby reducing not only the surface of contact at the 
shoulder, and consequently diminishing the cause of friction 
(41 ), but by reducing the distance from the center, at which 
the friction acts, the retarding effect of the friction is much 
less (46), thus obtaining a greater effort (25). 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 



51 



54. The Balance Arbor Pivots and Bearings, 

as well as those of the lever and scape wheel where their 
pivots run in capped jewels, deserve -particular attention. 
Fig. 14 shows hole and cap jewels in settings, but what 
applies to them is equally applicable to all capped jewels, 
with few exceptions. 




A 



:^x^ ZL4r 



In Fig. 14 all the laws of capillary action are applied. It 
has been shown (22-8) that, when two watch glasses are 
fixed rigidly relatively with their convex sides adjacent, if a 
drop of oil be placed near their centers it can be shaken from 
its position only with great difficulty. 

The jewels, in this instance, present much the same form, 
though only a minute quantity of oil, instead of a drop, is 
involved ; but the same influences are at work in both cases. 

This reservoir, if properly made, will contain enough oil 
to last a long time ; as, when the oil in the center is used up. 



52 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

that which is nearer the settings will be drawn to the pivot. 
The writer has said "nearer" the settings; but // is very 
important that the oil should never touch the setting (58). 

Both settings are cut away at aa\ in order that as little 
attractive influence (22) as possible may be exerted on the 
oil by the metal in the settings. 

Where the adjacent surfaces of the hole and cap jewel 
are flat and parallel the oil will usually have a tendency 
to be drawn to the setting — the evil effect of which will 
be shown (58) later — especially if the hole and cap jewel 
are at any appreciable distance from each other; while if 
they are too close together, the reservoir will not be suffi- 
ciently large. 

The conical pivot shown is the usual form in the finer 
grades of American watches ; and as this form of pivot com- 
bines strength with a minimum tendency to attract the oil 
from the jewel hole, it is to be highly recommended. The 
back-taper T should never be neglected for reasons pre- 
viously (47, 6) given. The proportions that should exist 
between the diameter of the pivot and the length of its 
])earing surface, as well as the shape of the end of the 
pivot, cannot be discussed here, as the scope of this work 
will not permit; but it should be borne in mind that the 
smaller the pivots, consistent with strength, the less the 
fiuid friction will be. The sides of the pivots should be 
straight and parallel for a minute distance from their bear- 
ing surfaces ; while the form of the rest of the pivot should 
l)e a gradually increasing curve, terminating at the point 
where the back-taper begins. 

The proper proportion of the diameter of the pivot to the 
diameter of the jewel hole varies according to conditions ; but 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 53 

it has been previously (37) shown in a general way what 
this should be. 

55. The Escapements should be constructed in such 
a way that a maximum durability of oil may be secured. 
The acting surfaces of the teeth of the scape wheels should 
be made as small as possible consistent with durability 
(43, 8) ; while enough metal should be left near the acting 
surfaces to be sufficient to retain the oil and prevent its 
attraction to the web of the wheel. The teeth of chro- 
nometer scape wheels should not be oiled, as it is liable to 
seriously alter the rate. When the oil becomes viscous by 
oxidation or by cold it would produce too much variation of 
fluid friction and so diminish the effort (25) of the mechan- 
ism. Some watchmakers oil the fork of the lever in 
anchor escapements very slightly, by applying oil and then 
using pith to remove any surplus, while others never oil the 
fork. The writer has frequently observed ferric oxide or 
"rust" on the roller, fork, and on the plate or potance ; but 
whether this was the result of not oiling or of oil having 
been applied which afterward become gummed, or evapor- 
ated, it would be interesting to know. 

56. The Curb Pins sometimes produce the ferric 
oxide mentioned by their action on the hairspring. This has 
been remedied by the same method as used in the fork just 
referred to, and if a very minute quantity of oil can be 
applied — such a minute quantity that if the whole spring 
were equally covered by a coating of oil equally thin^ such 
film being so thin that it would have no tendency to cause 
the coils to adhere, or to cause small particles of matter to 
adhere — then it may be that this method deserves notice. 



54 P'RICTION, LUBRICATION 

By making a solution of benzine and oil ( loo drops of the 
former with i to lo drops of the latter) and by immersing 
the hairspring in this solution and on withdrawing it dry it 
quickly between soft, fine linen, it will be found that the 
coik of the hairspring do not adhere to each other. The 
effect that this would produce on the whole spring by way 
of preventing rust in damp, warm climates, will be stated 
(78) later. 

57. The Application of Oil must be attended with 
great care. The shoulders of the barrel and center arbors 
may be profitably oiled before putting them in their places, 
applying an additional small amount afterward. The rest of 
the pivots should be oiled after the movement is set up — 
except in the case of capped jewels — as if oil is applied to 
each pivot as the wheel is put in position it would be diffi- 
cult to keep the oil in good condition and at its proper place 
if it should be necessary to take the movement apart again 
for any purpose. 

The oil is more evenly distributed on the teeth of 
scape wheels, where such require lubrication, if a small 
quantity of oil be applied to each tooth, or every second 
or third tooth. A small amount added to the surfaces 
on which the teeth act will in most cases be bene- 
ficial. If it be necessary to take the movement partially 
apart for any purpose, after it has been oiled, care should 
be taken not to give the train a too rapid motion, as 
the centrifugal force (23) resulting from the rapid circu- 
lar motion of the wheels will be liable to cause the oil 
to leave the jewel holes and spread upon the surfaces of 
the jewels, and also cause the oil to fly off the teeth of 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 55 

the scape wheel to its determent and that of other parts 
which are better without oil. 

58. The Method of Oiling Capped Jewels has 

been given by Saunier, as follows :* "When a drop of oil is 
introduced into the oil cup of the balance pivot-hole, insert 
a very fine pegwood point, so as to cause the descent of the 
oil. When this precaution is not taken, it frequently hap- 
pens that in inserting the balance pivot its conical shoulder 
draws away some of the oil, and there is a deficiency both 
in the hole and on the endstone." In both the English and 
American editions, this erroneous method is repeated. 

By this means, only an insufficient quantity of oil can 
be caused to flow into the reservoir, as the pressure of the 
air inside will prevent the oil flowing in ; as, in the case of a 
glass tube with the upper end sealed up, it has been shown 
(22, 2) that the water refused to be drawn up the tube, even 
with the added pressure caused by the lower end of the 
tube being below the water line. Again, the point of peg- 
wood is liable to have minute fibres of wood adhering to it, 
which will be incorporated with the oil ; and its liability to 
break off, and remain in the jewel hole, is another reason 
why pegwood should never be used. The author advances 
a method, which is not open to these objections, as follows : 
When about to place the cap jewel in position — after the 
hole jewel is in place if it be in a setting — a small quantity 
of oil is placed on the cap jewel, as shown at O, Fig. 14, 
being very careful to allow no oil to spread upon the cap 
jewel setting. This setting is then carefully placed in posi- 
tion ; when the oil, if the operation has been skillfully 

*Saunier. Watchmakers' Handbook. 



56 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

performed, is seen to be collected in the reservoir Ji and in 
the the jewel hole. The appearance which it will assume 
is shown in Fig. 14. The advantages which this method 
possesses are : the reservoir can by this means be made to 
contain the maximum quantity of oil ; and the oil cup or 
sink 6" is left with its surface dry, thereby exposing less oil 
to the influences of the air ; and, at the same time the ten- 
dency of the oil to flow towards the shoulder of the pivot is 
decreased. 

Skill is necessary in order to judge of and place the 
requisite amount of oil on the cap jewel before putting it in 
position ; as, if too much is used it is worse than if too little 
is employed, because the oil would then flow on to the set- 
ting, and from there betiveen the settings at b^ when it will 
rapidly be all drawn from the bearings leaving it dry, while 
the settings are copiously supplied. The approximate rela- 
tive position which the oil should occupy is shown at d^ Fig. 
14, in section ; and this can be seen by looking through the 
jewels with a double eye-glass, when a true circle, concentric 
with the jewel hole, will be seen to have formed. This 
circle represents the limit of the distance which the oil has 
flowed from the jewel hole. When too much oil has been 
applied, this limit is not a circle, but represents a U. 

In the example given, the upper surface of the cap jewel 
is made flat, while the lower surface is made convex with a 
flat space in the center ; as a better view of the end of the 
pivot and the condition of the oil can be thereby obtained. 

In no case should the contiguous surfaces of the hole and 
cap jewel be both made flat ; as, when their planes are verti- 
cal, the oil will be drawn downwards by gravitation (18), 
there being no counteracting force (22) to keep the oil in 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 57 

place. The author has remedied this defect, in many 
instances, by cutting a groove around the jewel, leaving only 
enough metal near the jevv^el to hold it, and enough near the 
edge of the setting to rest solidly against the other setting. 

In some watches, particularly those of Swiss make, the 
jewel bezels — both cap and hole — are brought well up 
around the jewel, while a groove is cut around the Jewel 
bezel. In this instance the oil may be made to cover the 
whole inside surface of both jewels, as the groove will pre- 
vent the oil from flowing away to parts where it is not 
required. 

The reprehensible practice of replacing a broken cap 
jewel by cutting away the bezel and placing the new jewel 
in loosely, cannot be too severely condemned. The new 
cheap foreign-made watches contain this objectionable 
feature in many instances. 

Where the jewels are in settings, sharp instruments, as 
tweezers, etc., should never be used to push the settings in 
place ; as the projections produced in this manner would not 
only injure the appearance of the settings, but would prevent 
their close contact. Thoroughly clean., well-finished jewel 
pushers are indispensable ; as even pegwood is liable to leave 
fibres at least. 

The -shape of the oiler is a matter of some importance ; as 
with a poorly-made oiler it is next to impossible to do work 
satisfactorily. The tip is preferably of gold, tapering towards 
the end to about the size of a second's hand pivot of an 
eighteen size American movement ; but at the end it should 
be about three times as wide and flat. A nickel fastened to 
the end of a lead-pencil will give the idea approximately. 
This large end will cause the oil to remain where it may be 



58 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

readily applied to the bearing surface, instead of flowing 
back on the oiler towards the handle, as it would (22, 7) if 
the point were tapering. 

59. The Stem Winding Mechanism should be 

thoroughly well made, always keeping in view that the laws 
of capillary attraction must be complied with. 

Wherever an angle can be formed, with its apex pointing 
towards the place where the oil is required to remain, it 
should be done. 

A very good lubricant for stem wind parts is found in 
stearine, from which the animal oils are expressed at cold 
temperatures, as it is very thickly fluid at ordinary tempera- 
tures ; while an excellent lubricant for this purpose is paraf- 
fine — not the wax nor the oil, but that white, soft substance 
from which both are obtained ( 13 tSi 73). Stearine and paraf- 
fine both possess great viscosity ; and, though the fluid fric- 
tion is increased by their use, the solid friction is diminished. 
Then, too, the te?tdency to spread is very much less. 

60. The Pendant is frequently a cause of trouble to 
the watchmaker. It is very important that the winding 
stem be lubricated with a substance that will not spread 
at ordinary temperatures. The lubricant should be applied 
at all places where steel rubs on steel or other metal. The 
winding stem and case spring, and the sleeve if present 
should have as much as can be safely applied ; as they are so 
much exposed that rust often forms, which finds its way 
down through the movement, frequently resulting in serious 
damage to the delicate parts. The bearings of collet on 
stem and the pendant screw should also be lubricated. 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 59 

Attention to these details will also prevent " that squeak- 
ing sound" which, sometimes occurring shortly after a watch 
has been repaired, causes the owner to believe that the work 
was not done properly. 

The lubricants just mentioned (59) serve admirably for 
this purpose. 

61. The Cause of the Cutting of Pivots, in 

addition to the effect of friction (32, i) and other causes 
which have been mentioned (49), may be that minute cur- 
rents of static electricity are induced between the surfaces of 
the pivot and bearing, the oil acting as the electrolyte. 

If this be the case, the cause of pivots turning black 
would appear to be explained — the molecules of iron becom- 
ing electrically disassociated from the molecules of carbon, 
the latter being by their nature black, and being now on the 
surface in sufhcient quantities to make themselves evident, 
give the surface the black color. Such is the first stage of 
" cutting." 

The molecules of iron, becoming incorporated in the now 
thick and viscous oil or imbedding themselves in the bearing, 
act as an abrasive ; the black surface is removed, making the 
pivot again bright, but " ringed." The molecules of iron, 
uniting with the molecules of oxygen which exist in the 
oil in its oxidized state, forms ferric oxide. 

Ferric oxide is known as colcothar, English-Roth, rouge, 
crocus, etc. 

The above theory is advanced by the author for what it 
may be worth, as it seems to explain this curious phenome- 
non. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE PROPERTIES AND RELATIVE VALUES OF LUBRICANTS 
IN HOROLOGY. 

62. Lubrication has for its objects, both the reduc- 
tion of friction and the prevention of excessive injury from 
wear ; and the mechanician resorts to the expedient of inter- 
posing between the rubbing surfaces a substance having the 
lowest possible coefficient of friction with the greatest pos- 
sible capacity for preventing wear. 

The valuable qualities of lubricants are determined by 
their power of reducing friction, and by their endurance as 
well as that of the surfaces on which they are used. The 
amount of frictional resistance to the motion of machinery 
is obviously determined by the character of the lubricating 
material.* 

63. The Animal Oils have had a wide and varied 
application in general machinery, and much testimony might 
be produced to show the superiority of any one kind 
over all the other kinds. Each variety has some particular 
property which some of the others may not have to such a 
degree. 

64. Porpoise Jaw Oilf and Blackflsh Melon 

Oil have certain good qualities which have made them very 

♦Thurston. Friction and Lost Work in Machinery. 

t As the fish from which these oils are obtained are of the mammalia order, their 
oils are classed among the animal oils. 



62 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

popular, particularly on this side of the Atlantic. When 
properly refined (4-6) they are no doubt very suitable for the 
work of reducing friction in small and delicate mechanism. 

65. Sperm Oil (7) had been used to some extent as a 
lubricant for time-keeping contrivances ; in fact, many tower 
clock experts still employ it on the heavier bearings. A. 
Long, writing to the British Horological Journal, describes 
a trip to the Arctic regions in 1814 and 1815, in which 
he states that a certain portion of the sperm oil they 
obtained never congealed, which they preserved and applied 
to their chronometers, and thus kept them going through 
the winter. 

Others have experimented with it, and it was at one time 
largely used ; while some tower clock makers claim that they 
find it satisfactory. It is, however, open to the objection 
that it would produce serious variation when used in time- 
keeping mechanisms, as its viscosity varies greatly ivith 
varying- temperatures caused by the alteration of the sper- 
maceti it contains, thus causing sudden fluctuations of its 
coeflRcient of friction (81 ). It also absorbs oxygen rapidly 
when it is exposed to the air and loses quality seriously, 
gradually becoming ''gummed" or resinous. A gain of 
two to three per cent in weight in twelve hours when 
exposed to the air at 140° F. (60 C), is caused by this 
absorption of oxygen (10). 

66. Bone Oil (8) has been widely used both in this 
country and in Europe, and possesses some good qualities, 
not the least of which is the property of resisting evapori- 
zation and oxidation. 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 63 

67. NeatsfOOt Oil (9) has been largely used, especially 
in Europe. The writer regrets that he has not procured 
samples in order to ascertain its relative value. 

68. Olive Oil (10) has at least one good quality. It 
is one of the most perfectly non-drying of all the oils, 
resisting both oxidation and evaporation (24). But it is 
next to impossible to entirely remove its acid qualities, small 
traces of which remain after the most thorough treatment. 
It is also liable to decomposition, generating acids even after 
refinement. 

69. Mineral Oil ( 1 1 ) has been used as a lubricant for 
time keeping mechanism ; but as there are so many varie- 
ties on the market, each differing from the others and pos- 
sessing properties peculiar to itself, and as many have made 
experiments which have not demonstrated that such oils 
possess all the essential qualities of a perfect lubricant 
in horology, the author believes that the abundance of 
kinds and qualities of mineral oils has in the past been more 
or less confusing to the majority of those who have experi- 
mented ; and believes further, that if the proper kind and 
quality of such oils had been used, all that could be desired 
in a lubricant would have been shown to have been con- 
tained therein. 

Past experience has shown that many lubricants remained 
for years unused for special purposes to which, when tried, 
they were found specially adapted. 

Though E. Rigg was probably in error in the matter 
previously discussed (44) his otherwise excellent lecture 
contains the following : — * 

*The Horological Journal, Apr.. 1881. Vol. xxiii. Page 98. 



64 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

" But there is another subject that has a still closer bear- 
ing on friction as met with in time keeping instruments, and 
I cannot bring my lecture to a close without reference to 
that most fruitful source of trouble to the watchmaker — 
oil. Breguet, a very famous horologist, and D'Arcet, an 
equally celebrated chemist, worked together at this problem 
and what was the result? They produced an oil that was, 
according to their theory, perfect ; but when applied to 
watches it proved to be worse than the ordinary oils of 
commerce. Since their day the chemistry of oil has not 
made much progress, and the methods recommended for 
testing oil are still very ineffectual. The only test of any 
use is actual trial for a long period, and under varying 
conditions as to temperature, nature of atmosphere, etc. ; 
and there are several oils on the market more or less 
satisfying the required conditions. So far as my knowl- 
edge goes, however, all are liable to dry ; and this prompts 
me to draw your attention to a lubricator that has come 
into use for heavy machinery in recent years, in the hope 
that it may afford a suggestion for the improvement of 
watch oils. I allude to the mixture of certain kinds of 
mineral oil with an oil that has a tendency to dry. Even a 
small percentage is asserted to entirely check this tend- 
ency and the resulting mixture is said to have the prop- 
erty of not in any way acting on or damaging the metal 
to which it is applied. The thickness, or 'body,' is 
made to vary according to the pressure to which the oil is 
subjected. * * * * Would it be oversanguine to 
hope that some such mixture, prepared from perfectly pure 
materials, might help even the chronometer maker to secure 
more uniform rates? Absolute freedom from acidity means 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 65 

a reduction of such electrical action as may occur at the 
pivots, and, therefore, a greater permanency of the oil from 
this point of view." 

70. Neutral Oil (h) seems to be especially adapted 
for use in horology. Used in a pure state, or mixed in vari- 
able quantities v^^ith a good animal oil, it can readily be made 
to fulfill the various conditions required in all parts of 
watches, chronometers, mantel and tov^er clocks. 

It is usually sold as such, but sometimes under the names 
" liquid paraffine," " glycoline," " albolene," etc., while 
"solid paraffine," " white cosmoline," "solid alboline," are 
the names given to the thick butyraceous mass from which 
neutral oils are made. Sometimes this substance, as well as 
the liquid parafiine, is medicated or perfumed; but it is 
hardly necessary to state that when thus treated it is unfit 
for use in horology. ^ 

71. The Properties of Neutral Oil are stated to. 

be :* 

" It is a clear oily liquid, having a specific gravity of not 
less than 0.840 and boiling not below 360° C. (680° F.). It 
should be free from colored, fluorescing, and odorous com- 
pounds. 

When heated for a day by means of a water bath, the 
parafiine should not become dark colored, and the sulphuric 
acid should become only slightly brownish. Metallic sodium 
treated in a similar manner should retain its metallic lustre. 
Alcohol boiled with paraflftne should not have an acid 
reaction." 



►Pharmacopoea Gernianica. 1882. 



66 FRICTION. LUBRICATION 

72. The Properties of Solid ParafSne (13) are 

given as follows :* 

"The melting point of commercial paratfine varies much. 
Obtained from the residuum of petroleum distillation it is 
usually 43"" C. (109.4 ^O' ^^ somewhat higher." 

The acid and metallic sodium tests given for liquid paraffine 
will apply to the solid paraffine. 

73. The Value of a Lubricant as a lubricant is 

independent of the market price ; and it is at a maximum, 
according to Thurston, when it possesses the following 
characteristics : 

1. Enough "body," or combined capillarity and vis- 
cosity (82), to keep the surfaces between which it is inter- 
posed from coming in contact at maximum pressures. 

2. The greatest fluidity consistent with the preceding- 
requirements, i. e., the least fluid friction allowable. 

3. The lowest possible coefficient of friction under the 
conditions in actual use, i. e., the sum of the two compon- 
ents, solid and fluid friction, should be a minimum. 

4. A maximum capacity for receiving, transmitting, stor- 
ing and carrying away heat. 

5. Freedom from tendency to decompose or to change 
in composition by gumming or otherwise, on exposure to the 
air (79) while in use. 

6. Entire absence of acid or other properties liable to 
produce injury of materials or metals (77) with which they 
may be brought in contact. 

7. A high temperature of vaporization and a low temper- 
ature (83) of solidification. 

*The National Dispensatory. 1884. 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 67 

8. Special adaptation as to speed and pressure of rubbing 
surfaces under which the unguent is to be used. 

9. It must be free from grit and from all foreign matter. 
The auther will add that for use in horology : 

10. It must possess a minimum variation of viscosity 
( 84) in varying temperatures. 

The writer can see no reason why a mineral oil which 
has been properly refined and of the proper consistency^ 
either alone or mixed with animal oil, could not be used 
to great advantage in horology. Indeed, the possibilities 
in this direction seem to be so pregnant with promises 
of good results that some space will be devoted to the 
matter. 

74. The Special Advantages of Mineral Oils 

as lubricants in horology are : 

1. Mineral oils can be made entirely pure, and possess 
uniform and known properties when derived from the same 
or a similar source ; while the quality of animal and vegeta- 
ble oils varies from year to year, depending, in animal oils, 
on the season of the year when the crude oil is obtained, on 
the age and condition of the animal, and on the kind, qual- 
ity and quantity of food which it had (5) recently con- 
sumed ; and in vegetable oils on the season, soil, climate and 
method of treatment. 

2. According to Thurston "All vegetable and animal 
oils are compounds of glycerine with fatty acids. When 
they become old, decomposition takes place and the acid 
is set free, by which action the oils become rancid. This 
rancid oil or acid will attack and injure machinery. Again, 
all animal oils contain more or less gummy matter, which 



68 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

accumulates when exposed to the action of the atmos- 
phere, and will, consequently, retard the motion of the 
machinery." 

3. Spon, in his Encyclopedia of the Arts, gives his views 
to the effect that " The best oil is that which has the great- 
est adhesion to metallic surfaces and the least cohesion in its 
own particles. In this respect fine mineral oils stand first, 
sperm oil second, neatsfoot oil third. Consequently the best 
mineral oils are the best for light bearings. The best oil to 
give body to fine mineral oils is sperm oil." 

4. "Mineral oils do not absorb oxygen," and conse- 
quently do not "gum" or become viscous. — Thurston. 

5. Mineral oils never become rancid in any climate, as 
they possess no fatty acids. 

6. Mineral oils produce very little fluid friction. 

7. Mineral oils withstand a high temperature without 
decomposition or vaporization, and a low temperature with- 
out solidification. 

8. Properly prepared mineral oils are free from grit and 
all foreign substances. 

9. In addition to the above, a minor property of mineral 
oil is that they are very cheap comparatively, while they do 
not possess any odor if properly refined. 

10. The variation of viscosity in varying temperatures is 
less in mineral oils than in animal or vegetable oils. 

75. Methods of Testing Oils are necessary in 
order to determine which may be adapted to a spe- 
cific purpose. Their peculiar characteristics must be stud- 
ied in order lo know which will best fulfill the condi- 
tions arising in actual practice. Experiments are necessary 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 69 

in which the oil is subjected to conditions approximating, 
as nearly as possible, to the conditions proposed in its actual 
use. 

Saunier states* that "success depends largely on the skill 
of the manipulator ; and if he is not endowed with the 
power of judging, mainly by the taste, whether oil satisfies 
certain prescribed conditions, he can never be certain of the 
result." As the author's abilities in this regard are not up to 
the required standard, and as some oils are sometimes in 
such a state of decomposition that even the odor is unpleas- 
ant, he has used other, and perhaps more satisfactory, 
methods of determining the relative values of the various 
oils. 

The following experiments show the relative values of 
oils that have been, or may be, used in horology : 

J. J. Redwood has made experiments on the action of oils 
upon metals, especially for the purpose of determining which 
oils were best adapted for use on the various metals and for 
ascertaining which oils were most suitable for mixing as 
lubricants. He has tabulated the results of his researches in 
two tables, which show that :f 

Mineral oil has no effect upon copper and zinc, and 
attacks lead most. 

Olive oil attacks copper most, tin least. 

Sperm oil attacks zinc most, copper least. 

The experiments show, on the other hand, that : 

Brass is attacked most by olive oil. 

Copper is not attacked by mineral lubricating oil, least 
by sperm oil. 



*Saunier, Watchmaker's Hand-Book, p. 104, Eng. Edition; p. 129, Am. Edition. 
fBrannt. Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils. 



70 



FRICTION, LUBRICATION 



*Dr. Watson states in regard to this action : 

1. That of the oils used, viz., oHve sperm, neat's-foot, 
and paratfine, the samples of paraffine oil on copper was least 
affected, and that sperm was next in order of inaction. 

2. That the appearances of the paraffine oil and the 
copper were not changed after an exposure of 77 days. 

He laterf experimented further with the following results 
noted, after one day's exposure, with iron : — 

1. Neafs-foot. — Considerable brown irregular deposit on 
metal. The oil slightly more brown than when first applied. 

2. Sperm. — Slight brown deposit with irregular mark- 
ings on the metal. Oil of dark brown color. 

3. Olive. — Clear and bleached by exposure to light and 
air. The appearance of metal the same as when first 
immersed. 

4. Paraffine. — Oil bright yellow and contains a little 
brown deposit. 

The action of oils on iron exposed to their action for 
twenty-four hours and on copper after ten day's exposure 
was found to have been : — 

TABLE II. 
Action of Oiks on Metals. 



OILS. 


IRON DISSOLVED 
IN 24 HOURS. 


COPPER DISSOLVED 
IN 10 DAYS. 


Neat's foot 


.0875 grain. 
.0460 " 
.0062 " 
.0045 " 


.1100 grain. 
.0030 




Olive 


Paraffine 


.0015 " 



♦Paper read in the Chemical Section, British Association, Plymouth Meeting. 
1879. 
tSwansea Meeting. British Association, 1880. 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 7 1 

76. Various Experiments have been made by the 
writer with a number of oils that may be, or have been, 
used in horology, as well as with the principal watch 
oils on the market. At first he did not intend to mention 
the names of the manufacturers ; but, after seeking advice 
of several eminent watchmakers, and on mature considera- 
tion, he decided to do so for the following reasons : — 

1. The object of the Society before which these lectures 
were delivered* is "to promote and to secure concerted 
action for the purpose of w?^/'//a/ improvement in the practice 
of our profession as horologists, by a study of both the 
practical and theoretical divisions of the science and art 
of horology ; to publish the results of such study for 
the benefit of all in the profession ; to preserve the same 

for the use of our successors ; to elevate the standard of 
workmanship ; and to encourage in the members a higher 
conception of what our art really is." 

As this object cannot be attained without the names of 
manufacturers being mentioned in connection with their oils, 
the author considers that this is sufficient justification. 

2. No injustice can have been done the manufact- 
urers when the author states that the results obtained by 
him are not to be considered as conclusive evidence 
regarding the properties of the oils tested, as the samples 
he used may have been better than, or not so good as, 
the usual output of the manufacturers whose names were 
on the labels. 

3. Some of the manufacturers of oils sent samples sub- 
ject to the condition of the publication of the results, with 
the request that the oils should be submitted to test, and if 

* This work is compiled from a course of lectures delivered by the author before 
the Philadelphia Horological Society, i8q6. 



72 



FRICTION, LUBRICATION 



J 


g 




5; 


Porpoise jaw or 
blackfish— melon 

Porpoise jaw or 
blackfish-nielon 

Porpoi'sejaw or 
blackfish— melon 

Porpoise jaw or 
blackfish— melon 

Porpoise jaw or 
blackfish-nielon 

Bone 

Bone 

Neutral 

Neutral & .= 

Neutral 

Neutral 

Neutral 

Paraffine 

Sperm, whale 

Olive 


u 

S 


s s a a asssassssais 

a c -S a fl c a -S | .S .S .5 .S "S ^ 

< < < < <<<%^%-s.%%<^ 


w 
S 
< 

2 


Superfine 
Superior 
Superfine 
Superfine 

Superfine 
Superfine 
Superfine 
Album 
Perfect 
No. 1 Synolene 

Glycolene 
Fluid alboline 
Solid alboline 






Q 
Z 

S 


Watch 

Watch 

Watch 

Chronometer 

Clock 

Watch" 

Watch 
Watch & clock 

Watch 
Lubricating 
Lubricating 
Lubricating 
Lubricating 
Lubricating 
Lubricating 


M 

O 

b 
P 
Z 

< 


o 

H 

2 


New Bedford. Mass. 
New Bedford, Mass. 
Provincetown. Mass. 
Provincetown, Mass. 
Provincetown, Mass. 

Dresden, Germany 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

Philadelphia. Pa. 
Brooklyn, N. V. 
Brooklyn, N.V. 

Philadelphia. Pa. 

Philadelphia. Pa. 

Philadelphia, Pa. 






s 
< 
z 


Ezra Kelley 

W. F. Nye 

D. C. Stull 

D. C. Stull 

D. C. Stull 

W.Cuypers 

Breitinger & Kunz 

Stevenson Bro. & Co. 

Chem. Lub'g Co. 

Chem. Lub'g Co. 

Bullock & Crenshaw 

McKesson* Robbins 

McKesson&Robbins 








ii 




: * ^ -g o i ^ ^ s 5 
^ ^: I - - ^ ^ c3 c3 6 
^. ^. u 6 u o^^ J j . 
[li ^ d Q d^Mt/jucJc 


< 


< 

+■ 


c 
- + 


I 1 





AND THE LUBRICANTS.. 73 

found wanting, they (the manufacturers) certainly wished 
to know it. 

4. On hearing of these experiments, others in the profes- 
sion may be tempted to make similar or other investigations 
and publish them. 

5. In that case, if the results of many experiments demon- 
strate the superiority of one particular kind of oil, the whole 
profession will be profited thereby. 

6. The manufacturers of oils may be caused to exert 
their utmost to keep abreast of the times, and will see for 
themselves in what way their oils may not fulfill the required 
conditions, thereby being the better prepared to overcome 
the difficulties with which they meet. 

For the sake of convenience the author has tabulated 
a list of the oils which he has subjected to various 
tests, showing the name, kind and source of each oil 
tested ; also those which were obtained as samples, and 
those which were purchased in open market, as well as 
those which were not sold as watch oils, but which may 
be tried. 

This is shown in table III. 

77. The Action of Oils on Brass has been deter- 
mined by the author by using a piece of good sheet brass 
into which suitable recesses were made for the retention of 
the various oils. This plate was submitted to the action of 
the air at temperatures varying from 44° to 55' C. (about 
76" to 100° F.), for 100 days. 

The results of this test are shown in Table IV. A fur- 
ther test, under different conditions, gave results as shown 
in table V. 



74 



FRICTION, LUBRICATION 



TABLE IV. 

Action of Oils on Brass. 

Temp. 21° to 37.5° C. = 70° to 110° F. Time 100 days. 



symbols 
according to 


CONDITION. 


TABLE III. 


OF OIL. 


OF BRASS. 


E. K 

W.F.N 

W. C 


Light brown. 

Spread. 
Unaltered. 

Light brown. 
Green. 


Brown. 
Light brown. 


B. & K 


C. L. Co. w 

C. L. Co. No. I... 

Glyc 

Sp 




01 


Dark greenish-brown. 





TABLE V. 

Action of Oils on Brass. 

Temp. 5.5° to 21° C. -= 40° to 70° F. Time 25 days. 



SYMBOLS 

according to 
table iii. 



E. K. W 

W. F. N. w 

D. C. S. w 

D. C. S. ch 

D. C. S. cl 

W. C. w 

B. & K. w 

S. B. & Co. w. & cl 

C. L. Co. w 

C. L. Co. No. I... 

Glyc 

Alb. f 

AJb. s 



CONDITION. 



Very Light Brown. 



No change. 



No change. 



Very light brown. 
Unaltered. 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 75 

78. The Effect of Oils on Steel, with a view of 

ascertaining their rust preventing properties, especially to 
see if the treatment of hairsprings with a vety slight film 
of oil (56), would prevent rust in warm, damp climates was 
ascertained by the author, as follows : Each of twelve 
brass pins, stuck vertically in a block of wood, had a col- 
leted hairspring on its upper end. The block of wood was 
allowed to float in water and covered by a glass. One hair- 
spring was left as it came from the factory, while each of 
the others had been treated with a solution of porpoise jaw 
oil and benzine, varying proportions of one to ten per cent 
of oil being used, the balance being benzine. The hair- 
springs were dipped into the solution, and, on withdrawing, 
were immediately placed between two folds of soft linen 
cloth. In any case not enough oil remained on the hair- 
springs to cause the coils to adhere. One per cent of nitric 
acid was added to the water, and after ten days the hair- 
springs showed on examination that they had rusted in pro- 
portion to the amount of oil that had been used. Another 
trial, without acid in the water, and with one hairspring 
treated with ether, one with benzine, one each with one, two, 
five and ten per cent of porpoise jaw oil in benzine, and one 
each with the same quantity of mineral oil in benzine, 
showed after thirty days that the hairspring treated with ten 
per cent mineral oil was slightly rusted, while those treated 
with ether and benzine were badly rusted, and all the others 
were rusted more or less. 

79. The Gumming and Drying of Oils is a very 

important consideration, the former being caused by oxida- 
tion, while the latter is due to evaporation. 



76 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

In order to determine these properties in various oils the 
author used a number of watch glasses, their convex side 
being glued to a board. Two drops of oil were placed in each 
watch glass and spread over its concave surface, and the 
board placed in a covered box in which suitable air holes had 
been made, and allowed to remain in a temperature varying 
from 21° to 37.5° C. (=70° to I 10° F.) for 100 days, and at 
the end of that time the results shown in table VI were noted. 



TABLE VI. 

Gumming AND Drying of Oils. 

Temp. 21° C. to 37.5° C. = 70° F. to 110° F. Time 100 Days. 



SYMBOLS according TO TABLE III. 

E. K. w 

W. F. N. w 

W. C. w 

B. & K. w 

C. L. Co. W ; 

C. L. Co. No. I 

Glyc 

St 



s?. 



condition. 



Slightly dried. 

Very slightly dried. 

Slightly gummed. 

No change. 

Slightly dried, and spread. 

No change. 

No change. 

Slightly gummed. 

No change. 



80. The Viscosity of Oils denotes an approximate 
measurement of their relative lubricating power. 

Professor Thurston states* that "large consumers of oil 
sometimes purchase on the basis of this kind of test solely. 
It is regarded as satisfactory and reliable as any single phys- 
ical or chemical test known, and is second only to the best 
testing machine methods. 

* Thurston. Friction and Lost Work in Machinery. 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 77 

The less the viscosity, consistently with the use of the oil 
under the maximum pressure to be anticipated, the less is, 
usually, the friction. The best lubricant, as a rule, is that 
having the least viscosity combined with the greatest adhes- 
iveness. Vegetable oils are more viscous than animal, and 
animal more so than mineral oils. The fluidity of an oil is 
thus^ to a large extent, a measure of its value.'''' 

The relation between the viscosity and the friction reduc- 
ing power of oils has been determined by Mr. N. C. 
Waite* and others to be very close. 

An oil having little viscosity is suitable for the escapement 
and lighter parts of the train, but is not a good lubricant for 
the bearings of the center pinion and barrel arbor and the 
mainspring, which require a more viscous lubricant ; while a 
still greater viscosity renders it more serviceable on the stem 
winding mechanism (59) and in the pendant (60). 

Again, an oil that possesses sufficient "body," or com- 
bined capillarity (32) and viscosity, to resist the tendency to 
be "squeezed" from between the bearing surfaces in the 
heavier parts of the mechanism will produce a great excess 
of fluid friction in the lighter parts of the train and in the 
escapement. 

81. The Relative Viscosity of Oils is determined 

in several ways. Various machines have been devised for 
testing the lubricating properties of oils, but as the cheap 
ones are of no use, and as those which are reliable are so 
expensive as to prohibit their general use except in labora- 
tories and large factories, a simple method of ascertaining 
the relative viscosity of oils is desirable. 

♦Proceedings N. E. Cotton Manufacturers' Association, Nov. 28, 1880. 



78 



F-RICTION, LUBRICATION 



The author used a piece of plate crlass of suitable size on 
which one drop of each oil to be tested was placed near its 
end. The glass inclined from the horizontal, longitudinally 
— ^the angle of inclination being 6 degrees — and was 
placed in a constant temperature of 15.5° C. (^60° F.) 

The total distance in centimeters which each had traveled 
by the end of each day, as well as the appearance of the 
"track" which it had left is shown in table VII. 



TABLE VII. 

Relative Viscosity and Gumming of Oils. 

Temp. 16.5° C. = 6o°F. Inclination 6 degrees. Time 7 days. 



SYMBOLS 

ACCORDING TO 

TABLE III. 


DISTANCE IN CM. 

TRAVELED BY OIL AT THE END 

OF EACH DAY. 


WIDTH 
OF 


DAYS. 


I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 




E K W 


16 

15 

17.5 

12.5 

15 


5 


18 

16.5 

19 

15 

10 

n 


Stat. 
18 
20 
17-5 

18 

5 
7 








18 
20 
20 
20 

18 
18 

7 


Medium 


W. F. N. w 

W C w 


19 
Stat. 


20 


Stat. 


Narrow 


B. & K. w 


20 

IL. 

Stat. 

s?;5r 


Stat. 
17-5 






C. L. Co.w 

C L Co No I 


Stat. 


Very wide. 
Medium 


Give. 








Sp^ 


' 


10 


Narrow. 


01: 













Table VII not only shows the relative viscosity of the 
various oils, but also their tendency to gum or dry (79.) 
The " width of the track " left by the oil is an indication of 
the cohesion (20) and adhesion (21) which exists, respec- 
tively, in the oil and between the oil and the glass. A narrow 
track denotes great cohesion and little adhesion ; a wide track 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 



79 



denotes great adhesion and little cohesion ; while a medium 
track indicates that both properties are more nearly equal. 

If an oil possess great adhesion and little cohesion it is 
more liable to resist the tendency to be squeezed out of 
bearings, but it is also more likely to spread. 

Another test made in the manner just described (table 
VII) gave results as shown in table VIII : 



TABLE VIII. 

Relative Viscosity and Gumming of Oils. 

Temp. 24° C.= 75° F. Inclination 7 degrees. Time 7.3 days. 



SYMBOLS 

ACCORDING TO 

TABLE III. 


DISTANCE IN CM. 

TRAVELED BY THE OIL AT THE END 

OF EACH DAY. 


Days. 


0.3 


1-3 


2.3 


3-3 


4.3 


5-3 

31-5 
32.5 
30.5 
31-5 

27.5 

43-5 
30 
34 
37 


6.3 


7-3 


E. K.w 

W. F. N. w 

W. C. w 

B. & K. w 


14 

12.5 

19 

14 

10 

29 

17-5 
17-5 
15 


23 
20 

24 

17-5 

20 

38 

23 

23 

20 


26.5 
26.5 
26.5 

11 
40.5 
27 
28 

29 


28.S 

29 

28 

27 

26.5 

42.5 

28 

30 

33 


29.5 

31 
29 
29.5 
27 

43 
29 
32 
35 


32.5 

33-5 

32 

33 

28 

Stat. 

31 


33 

34 

33 

33-5 

28.5 

43-5 

32 

^5 


S. B. & Co. w. c 

C.L.Co.w 

C. L. Co. No. I 

Give 


Alb. f 



The author once heard a watchmaker say to a customer, 
when the latter called for a clock which had been left for 
repairs, " I have cleaned your clock thoroughly ; and, as 
you are a good customer, I made as good a job of it as I 
could. / even oiled it with ivatch oil.'''' This watchmaker 
evidently thought he was right. It is hardly necessary to 
mention that a stock of oils of different viscosity should be 



8o FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

kept on hand and intelligently used ; the di^erent bearings 
in any time keeping mechanism requiring oils of different 
viscosity. It is not to be supposed that the author means 
each bearing in a watch is to have a separate oil applied ; 
but a distinction should be made between the light and 
heavy pressures. 

82. The Effect of Heat on Oils is very marked in 
all cases ; some oils being much more subject to change 
than others, in viscosity and other properties, under the 
influence of an increase of temperature. 

The lubricating power of an oil is decreased, while its 
tendency to spread is increased, with a rise of temperature. 
In order to ascertain the relative values of various oils in 
this respect the writer used a plate of glass 28 cm, x 
40 cm., placed it flat on a table, and, depositing one drop 
of each oil near one of its longer edges, allowed it to remain 
in a temperature of 21° C. ( = 70° F.) for 30 minutes. At 
the end of this time the glass plate was placed in a vertical 
position, with its edge near which the drops of oil had been 
deposited uppermost and horizontal. The time required 
by each oil to run down to the bottom, a distance of 25 cm., 
was noted. The width of the track, at a point 3 cm, 
from the location of the drop at the start, was measured 
when the oil had passed that point, and again measured at 
the same point when the oil had reached the bottom. 

The same test was repeated, with all the conditions similar 
except that tlie temperature of the room was raised to 38° C. 
.( = 100° F.) before the oil was placed on the glass ; but the 
glass was allowed to remain in this temperature also for 30 
minutes. 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 



The results of both experiments are shown in table IX. 



TABLE IX. 

Relative Viscosity, Cohesion and Adhesion of Oils. 

Temp. 21° C.( = 7o° F.) and 38° C. (= 100° F.) Inclination Vertical. 





MINUTES REQUIRED 


WIDTH OF TRACK IN MM. AT A POINT 




TO FLOW 25 CM. 


3 CM. BELOW STARTING 




AT A TEMPERATURE 


PLACE WHEN THE OIL HAD FLOWED 


TABLE III. 


OF 








Temp. 21° C. ( = 70 F.) 


Temp.38°C.( 


= 100°F.) 






38° C. 




21° C. 












= 70° F. 


= IOO°F. 


3 CM. 


25 CM. 


3 CM. 


25 CM. 


E. K. w 


21 


14 




5 






W. F. N. w.... 


18 


12 




5 






D. C. S. w 


20 


13 




5 






D. C. S.ch 


15 


10 




5 






D. C. S. cl 


20 


II 




5 






W. C. w 


13 


8 










B. & K. w 


13 


1 1 


5 










S. B. & Co. w. c. 


15 


II 


6 


6 




8 


C. L. Co.w 


17 


15 


6 


7 




8 


C. L. Co. No. I . 


15 


10 


6 


6 




5 


Give 


14 


10 


6 


6 




g 


Alb. f 


14 


10 


6 


6 


6 


Sp 


10 


7 
12 


6 


I 







61 : ::: 


14 


5 


2 


I 







While the relative viscosity of oils in varying high tem- 
peratures is shown in table IX, the width of the track indi- 
cates the same properties as were explained in reference to 
table VII. Thus it is seen that the third and fifth columns of 
figures denote the relative adhesion of the oils, approxi- 
mately according to the value of the figures ; while the fourth 
and sixth columns exhibit their relative cohesion, and absence 
of adhesion, approximately according to the inverse value of 
the figures. Thus the tendency of the oil to spread, in the 



82 P'RICTION, LUBRICATION 

warm temperature to which time keeping mechanisms are 
frequently subjected, is indicated. 

83. The Effect of Cold on Oils is very observable 
in some varieties, converting them into greases, or even into 
hard, waxy solids. For out-of-door work unguents must 
be selected that will " feed " at any temperature to which 
they are exposed in the working of the bearings to which 
they are applied. 

The author has subjected various oils to a low degree of 
temperature, using a sufficient number of thin glass test 
tubes of 3 cubic centimeters capacity,* into each of which 2 
cubic centimeters of the oils to be tested were poured. The 
test tubes were then tightly corked and properly secured to 
a thin board, and placed in a temperature of — 15° C. ( = 
5° F.) the condition of the oils being noted at various inter- 
vals, the result of which is shown in table X. 

84. The Variations of Viscosity of Oils in 
Varying Temperatures always create fluctuations of 

their friction reducing power ; while the variations of fluid 
friction which result are also of great importance in horology. 
When it is known that the viscosity and lubricating power 
of an oil are usually (80) very closely related, it is seen that 
change of temperature has an exceedingly important effect 
upon oils, even for general lubricating purposes ; but par- 
ticularly so when they are applied to small and delicate 
mechanisms. 

An oil of the proper viscosity at ordinary temperatures 
may be very unsuitable in an extreme of heat, or cold, to 
which timepieces are frequently subjected — on account of 

*The average teaspoon holds 5 cubic centimeters. 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 

TABLE X. 

Relative Effect of Cold on Oils. 

Temp. — 15° C. (= 5° F.) Time of Exposure = 6 hours 



8.-; 



SYMBOLS 

ACCORDING TO 

TABLE III. 


CONDITION OF OIL. 


TIME. 


15 MIN. 


30 MIN. 


I HOUR. 


5 HOURS. 


ORDER OF 
VICOSITY. 


TT TT \\T ,.r 










2 


W.F. N.w 

D. C. S.w 






t-f. 


t-f. 


4 

2 
2 


D. C. S. cl 

W.C. w 


s-s. 


S-s. 


S-S. 


s-s. 


6 

2 
2 


S. B. &Co. w. c... 

C. L. Co.w 

C. L. Co. No. I ... . 


s-s. 
s-s. 


S-S. 
S-S. 


s-s. 
s-s. 


s-s. 
s-s. 


I 
5 
7 


Alh f 










3 


Sd 


s-s. 
v-t-f. 


S-S. 
S-S. 


s. 


v-s. 
v-s. 


8 


01 


9 








T. F. = Thickly fluid ; or like honey. 

V. T. F. = Very thickly fluid ; or like jelly. 

g_ s. = Semi-solid ; or hke butter at 60° F. 

S. = Solid ; or like butter at freezing point. 

V. S. = Very solid ; or like paraffin wax. 

The figures in the last column denote the apparent 
tive viscosity, as ascertained by inverting the test 
repeatedly. 



rela- 
tubes 



84 



FRICTION, LUBRICATION 



being too limpid in high temperatures to properly separate 
the rubbing surfaces ; while in low temperatures it may 
become so viscous as to seriously impede the motion of the 
escapement and the lighter parts of the train. 

Again, even if the oil were viscous enough in high tem- 
peratures to resist the tendency to be " squeezed " out of the 




bearings, the rate of the timepiece would be seriously 
affected by the variation of solid and fluid friction — espec- 
ially the latter — caused by a variable viscosity of the oil. 

When a watch, chronometer or clock has been so 
adjusted as to keep a maximum even rate, the oil is one of 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 85 

the factors of the variation which has been overcome ; and 
it is obvious that if another oil be used, in which a greater 
or less variation of viscosity exists than in the oil with which 
such timepiece was lubricated prior to adjustment, the varia- 
tion so produced will be more or less observable. 

It is, then, evidently necessary to be able to ascertain, with 
the greatest possible exactness, what change in this respect 
is produced in the various oils by a change of temperature. 
The means previously given (81-83) have their value; but 
when supplemented by a method for determining the par- 
ticular property under consideration, the results obtained are 
exceedingly interesting and valuable. On account of the 
importance of this matter the author has. made investigations 
in this direction, using a " viscosimeter " as shown at Fig. 
15, and of which the following is a description : 

AA represents an ordinary retort stand, with adjustable 
arms, BB, for holding in position the thermometer C, and 
the funnel DD capable of holding about one pint of water. 
EE is the viscosimeter proper, a glass tube, swollen at the 
lower end, and terminating in a circular orifice of i milli- 
meter (=.04 inch) in diameter;* being a "pipette" holding 
one cubic centimeter of oil between the dotted lines U and O. 

F is a flexible gum elastic tube fitting with an air-tight 
joint to the upper end of the glass tube. The funnel is 
closed at its lower end by a tightly-fitting cork H, in which 
an opening is made, through which opening the pipette 
passes and projects slightly below. G is a small, shallow 
vessel, preferably of glass, of sufiicient capacity to receive 
the contents of the pipette. S is a syphon composed of a 
glass tube in two sections — united by a short piece of rubber 

*i millimeter = .039+ inch. 



86 F-RICTION, LUBRICATION 

tube on which the device P pinches by the adjustment of 
the lever L — the bent section beginning near the bottom of 
the funnel, vv^hile the straight section terminates below^ the 
level of the table on which the retort stand is placed. 

In operating with this, the author proceeded as follows : 
The funnel was partially filled with water, and hot water 
added until its temperature reached 43° C. (-=iro° F). A 
sufficient quantity of the oil to be tested was placed in the 
glass vessel G, and drawn into the viscosimeter by gen- 
tle suction of the mouth until it exactly reached the line U, 
where it was retained, by a slight pressure with the thumb 
and finger, for five minutes, the temperature of the water in 
the funnel being kept constant. At the end of that time, 
after being sure that all the conditions as to temperature and 
quantity of oil were satisfied, the pressure of the thumb and 
finger was relaxed, when the oil began to drop through the 
lower end of the pipette. 

The time required for the upper surface of the oil to fall 
from U to O was carefully ascertained by means of a " stop 
watch," and the number of seconds noted. In case of doubt 
the test was repeated. 

The temperature of the water in the funnel was then 
lowered by the addition of ice, to 38° C. ( = 100° F.), when 
the operation was again performed as just described. This 
was repeated at regular intervals of temperature down to 
40 C. (=40° F), when the water was again heated, the 
pipette thoroughly cleansed by introducing benzine into the 
pipette in a manner similar to that by which the oil was 
introduced. The surplus water which accumulated in the 
funnel was allowed to escape through the syphon by 
relaxing the lever of the pinching device. It is obvious 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 



87 



that the number of seconds, in each case, corresponds to the 
viscosity. Other oils were put through the same course, the 
results obtained being shown in table XL 

TABLE XI. 

Relative Variations of Vicosity of Oils in Varying 
Temperatures. 



SYMBOLS 

ACCORDING TO 

TABLE III. 


SECONDS REQUIRED FOR I C. C. OF OIL TO FLOW 
THROUGH AN ORIFICE OF I MM. (= .04 IN.) 


Temp.* 


CENT. 


4.5 


10 


15-5 


21 


26.5 


32 


37-5 


43 


FAHR. 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


no 


E. K. w 

W. F. N. w.... 

D. C. S.w 

D. C. S. ch 

D. C.S.cl 

W. C. w 

B& K.w 

S.B.lScCo.w.c. 

C. L. Co.w 

C. L. Co. No. I . 
Glyc 


25 
27 

i 

29 
24 
46 

14 
32 

25 


20 
20 

23-5 
23 
20 
20 

?6 

10 
28 
13 
19 


17 
14 
19 
17 
17 
18 

25 
11.5 

9 

12.5 
10 

,6 


15 

15 
14 
14.5 
13 
20 
10 
6.5 
10 

9-5 
13 


10 

9 

12.5 
11.5 
II 

1 1.5 
17 

9 

76 
10 


1' 

11.5 

9 

8.5 
10 

4.5 

P 


7 
7 

9-5 
7 
7 
8 

11.5 
7 
4 
6.5 


6 
6 
8 
6 

6.5 
7 
10 
6.5 

r 

5 

5-5 


Alb. f 





85. Mixed Oils have been tried by many who have 
been desirous of obtaining a better lubricant. A mixture of 
different kinds of animal or vegetable oils — or a combination 
of both — has usually proved worse than any single one of 
the components ; as, when it is known that " alterations^ of 

♦The readings of the Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales given here are not ex- 
actly equivalent; but they are near enough for all practical purposes. 
tThurston. Friction and Lost Work in Machinery. 



88 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

composition occur in the animal and vegetable oils with 
exposure to air and light and with advancing age" (74-2), it is 
obvious that this chemical action is accelerated by a mixture. 
The mineral oils are not subject to such alterations to any 
serious extent ; and, when they are compounded with animal 
or vegetable oils, the resulting mixture partakes of the good 
qualities of both, according to experiments which the author 
has made. It would make this paper* too lengthy to insert the 
results ; however, a future opportunity may not be wanting. 

86. Various Manufacturers of watches, chrono- 
meters and clocks, have favored the writer with more or 
less valuable information in answer to queries on the subject, 
which has been tabulated and which is shown in table XII. 

It is necessary to know just what kind of oil has been 
used by the manufacturer of a time piece for three reasons : — 

(1.) If some of the bearings need a small quantity of 
oil, being otherwise in such good condition — because of 
never having been used, in fact " new " — that it is unneces- 
sary to take all the mechanism apart and clean it, it is very 
important that the operator know what kind, or variety, of 
lubricant has been previously used, in order not to " mix oils ;" 
or, if a mixture is thus made, to make it intelligently. (85.) 

(2.) When the oil which has been applied in the factory 
has not performed its functions properly in any part of a 
time piece, it is necessary to know what particular variety 
of lubricant has been used in order to substitute an oil which 
possesses the properties lacked by the oil previously used. 
(61.) 

*This work is compiled from a series of papers read and lectures delivered by 
the author before the Philadelphia Horological Society, 1896. 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 89 

(3.) In a watch which has been so adjusted as to keep a 
maximum even rate, the oil is one of the factors of the 
variation which has been overcome. It is necessary, then, 
on putting the watch in order, to employ a lubricant which 
possesses the same variation of viscosity as the oil which 
was used during adjustment. (84.) 

Some other interesting facts are shown in table XII, as 
well as the foregoing. The queries were as follows : — 

QUESTIONS ASKED. 

1. What oil do you use ? 

2. What oils have you tried? 

3. What has been your experience with mixed oils? 

4. Do you use the same grade of oil on all parts of 
your ? 

5. If not, what is your practice? 

6. What amount of oil do you use annually ? 
The answers are given in Table XII. 

87. Impurities in Oils and all foreign matter exert 
a very injurious effect. The method of sealing the bottles 
with sealing wax or gum labels should be avoided ; the 
former, as the wax is brittle and liable to break in very fine 
pieces which lodge around the cork from whence they get 
into the oil ; and the latter because the gum with which it is 
caused to adhere remains on the bottle, only to be absorbed 
by the oil. 

Parafhn wax makes a very good sealing material, as it is 
not brittle, and keeps the oil protected from the air. An 
extra long cork should accompany each bottle. 



■~o 


3 


1 
So 




OS 

3 




11 






So 




kT, 


11 

^ c 

53 -a 

— c 


Is 

:£^ 

born 
J" 






'° u 

i o 

S o 

OT3 


T3 

d 

i2 c 
as 

°° 

p 

1 








i4 

i 

IB 


- 


1 


6 

2 






6 


6 


1 ■ 


> 


> 




. 


1 




i 
U5 


Si 
§■2 


i 


i 

z 






i 

1 

"o 

z 


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92 FRICTION, LUBRICATION 

Then again some workmen leave the oil bottle standing 
open, which is obviously a very careless proceeding. The 
author has seen a bottle one quarter full of dust, the oil still 
being used from the top. When oil is to be placed in the 
oil-cup, it should be done by using a small, clean glass rod — 
kept for the purpose — and never poured out of the bottle. 

The oil cup should always have the cover on except when 
taking oil from it. Before it is refilled it should be very 
carefully cleaned. 

The oiler should be perfectly clean, that kind which has a 
hexagonal nut on the handle and a gold tip being very 
excellent. Some careless workmen wipe the oiler on the 
back of the hand, on the clothes, on a dirty rag, on an old 
chamois, etc. The tip of the oiler should never touch the 
hand or fingers, as the acids in the perspiration are sure to 
cause a bad effect on the oil. 

The following is a list of " oilers " which the author has 
seen used : — Peg wood, broom straw, quill, toothpick, 
match-stick, screw driver, tweezers, rat-tail file, piece of 
copper wire, horse-shoe nail, steel pen. 

If dust be on the bench paper, or in the movement tray, 
the pivots will surely transfer some of it to the bearings 
when the wheels are being put to place. 

The scape- wheel, mainspring and other parts, the rub- 
bing surfaces of which may come in contact with the 
fingers, should be so handled as to allow no persipration to 
become deposited on any surface which may afterwards 
require oiling, as the acids contained in the perspiration will 
exert an injurious effect on the oil. 

The owners of watches sometimes subject them to very 
hard treatment by using perfumes, etc., and then some people 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 93 

perspire more than others, while the perspiration of some 
persons contains more acids, or is more rancid, than that of 
others. For these reasons the method of testing oil by put- 
ting it on watches kept to loan to customers as Saunier 
recommends cannot be relied on. 

Oils should be kept in a clean, cool, dark place. The 
wrapper or label on the bottle should be dark blue or black, 
to exclude all light, as, if this is not done, the oil will be more 
liable to decomposition, except in the case of a mineral oil, 
which is not affected by light. All vegetable and animal 
oil which has been "bleached" by exposure to the light is 
more liable to decomposition on exposure to air than that 
which is unbleached. 

88. The Effect of Age on Oils. Writing on this 

subject Mr. Henry G. Abbott* states as follows : " There 
is a popular fallacy existing in the trade that oils should be 
used when fresh, and even that acknowledged authority, 
Saunier, says, 'do not buy from motives of economy bottles 
that have laid for years in the shop.' This may be true and 
probably is in regard to animal and vegetable oils, which are 
likely to become rancid if kept for a long time, but William 
F. Nye, one of the largest and most celebrated manufactur- 
ers of fine watch and chronometer oils in the world, declares 
that blackfish oils are improved by age, and his oils are sel- 
dom placed on the market in the same year as obtained. 
We are indebted to the same authority for the statement that 
oils of this kind are clearer and more brilliant after some 
years than fresh oils." Though Mr. Abbott has made some 
very valuable additions to the literature of the profession, 

♦Abbott. The American Watchmaker and Jeweler, 1892, page 249. 



94 FRICTION. LUBRICATION 

the author begs permission to call attention, in reference to 
this, to the following facts : 

Mr. Abbott says that vegetable and animal oils are likely 
to become rancid if kept for a long time, but blackjish oils 
are not. Brant* states that the porpoise or Phocoena corn- 
munis^ Cuv., and the blackfish, or Phocoena globicefs^ are 
of the subdivision Delphinodea, or dolphins, of the famil)- 
of Cetacea., or whales, an order of the vertebrated mammif- 
erous marine animals. Adler Wright^j- states that "the term 
'train oil,' strictly speaking, applies to any oil extracted from 
the blubber of cataceans and the allied marine mammalia, 
such as the seal, porpoise, dolphin and walrus." Huxley 
classes among catacea the dolphins, porpoises, grampus and 
narwhal. Authorities might be quoted ad iiifinitum to show, 
not only that porpoise-jaw oil and blackfish-melon oil are 
animal oils., but that they possess properties similar to other 
animal oils as far as their liability to decompose by age, more 
or less, is concerned. 

Furthermore, ThurstonJ states that "all vegetable and 
animal oils are compounds of glycerine and the fatty acids. 
When they become old decomposition takes place, and acid 
is set free, hy which action, as is commonly said, the oils 
become rancid." Thus Saunier is borne out in his admoni- 
tion. 

89. In Conclusion, the author wishes to state, that as 
he has been able to find but little in the literature of the craft 
in English, French or German, he has pursued the study of 

*Brant. Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils, pages 297-299. 
tAdler Wright. Oils, Fats and Waxes, and Their Manufactured Products, p. 
292-293. 
J" Friction and Lost Work in Machinery." 



AND THE LUBRICANTS. 95 

the "properties and relative values of lubricants in horol- 
ogy " upon lines which have suggested themselves as being 
best adapted to give good results. As much that is herein 
contained is new and original in its application in horology, 
the theories advanced may be in some respects incorrect. 
The tests of various oils have, no doubt, been subject to per- 
sonal error ; but it has been the earnest desire of the author 
to give the subject the attention it deserves. 

In order that truth may prevail and that justice may be 
done to the various manufacturers of oils, as well as to the 
author and his subject, he will again request criticism 
through the trade press in any matter in which he may seem 
to be at fault. He further wishes that others may become 
interested, and that the makers and repairers of watches, 
chronometers and clocks, as well as the manufacturers of oil, 
will further assist in these investigations by making similar 
or other experiments, and report the result of the same 
through the trade press in order that this very important 
subject may be thoroughly understood. 

In furtherance of this object the author will furnish 
samples of oils free to anyone wishing to make experimen- 
tal tests of any kind, on condition that the results of such 
tests shall be published or communicated to the author for 
future publication. Address, W. T. Lewis, President Phila- 
delphia Horological Society, Philadelphia, Pa. 



